
Class _XIjL^X 

Book .Mn 

CopightN?_— ^1^ ^ 



CQ£ffiIGHT DEPOSm 



Modern Painting, Hardwood 
Finisliing and Sign Writing 

PAINTS AND PAINTING 

This important subject is thoroughly covered with full ex- 
planations of how to test paints for adulterations, causes of 
blistering, colors, brushes, calcimining, carriage painting, 
color harmony, color mixing, color testing, exterior paint- 
ing, gilding, graining, house painting, marbling, oils and 
driers, etc., including valuable hints on scene painting. 

WOOD FINISHING 

Under this head is treated the subject of filling, staining, 
varnishing, polishing, gilding and enameling woodwork of 
all kinds of woods, both hard and soft. It also treats on 
renovating old work. 



MODERN UP-TO-DATE ARTISTIC SIGN 
PAINTING 

Describing Plain and Ornamental and Ancient and Mediaeval 
Lettering from the Eighth to the Twentieth Century, with 
Numerals. Including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, 
Perspective, Initials, Monograms, Etc. 



FULLY ILLUSTRATED 



By ARMSTRONG, HODGSON AND DELAMOTTE 



Special Exclusive Edition 
Printed by 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 

EXPRESSLY FOR 

SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY 

CHICAGO, ILL. 
1918 






Copyright, 1918-1914 and 1910 
By Frederick J. Drake & Co. 



Copyright. 1910 
By Frederick J. Drake & Co. 



Copyright, 1914 
By Frederick J. Drake & Co. 






\ 







V/ 







/ 



<rvv-: { 



INTRODUCTION 



The Modern Painter's Cyclopedia is not merely the 
compiling and putting together the stale writings and 
antiquated methods which have been put to use by many 
persons to make up a book to sell, but has been com- 
pletely rewritten and the subject matter handled in 
such a way as to describe the latest methods used in 
performing the work. Owing to the great number of 
subjects handled the descriptions given are necessarily 
brief. The more important ones will be treated more 
at length than those of minor interest to the general 
reader, as for instance "China painting," etc; to treat 
the subject in a thqrough manner would of itself fill a 
good sized volume, while the majority of readers would 
probably pass it by as of no interest to them, w^hile they 
would naturally look for at least concise, full informa- 
tion on colors, house, carriage or sign painting and kin- 
dred subjects in which the big majority of readers are 
interested. 

The alphabetical arrangement of the "Painter's Cy- 
clopedia" has been preserved and the subject matter de- 
scribed will be found thus more readily. While this ar- 
rangement has many advantages, it must be admitted 
that it has its faults in that the various operations in 
painting are rather scattered without regard to sequence 

3 



4 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

or any gradation upward from the simpler to the more 
difficult parts. 

This defect has been greatly minimized by number- 
ing each paragraph and to keep them sufficiently pointed 
to differ from the preceding or succeeding ones. 
Throughout the work wherever the necessity occurs, 
reference by number will be made to such paragraphs 
in other parts of the book; this will make the subject 
matter more easily understood without the necessity of 
repeating; saving much space. Thus operations which 
are common to many branches of painting are only de- 
scribed once and the reader will be referred by number 
to where the additional information can be found. This 
it is hoped will reduce the defect mentioned above to its 
lowest limits. 

Besides a very copious index has been prepared 
which will enable the reader to find readily every phase 
of any subject treated. 

To enable students to memorize or recollect the sub- 
ject matter of each heading, a series of questions will be 
found at the end numbered to correspond to that of the 
paragraphs containing the answer. This will enable 
the student to determine for himself the correctness of 
his own answer. 

As many persons no doubt will buy this book with a 
view to educating themselves upon one or more 
branches of the trade — in a manner it will take the 
place of the correspondence school to such — at a greatly 
reduced cost. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 5 

In organized, practical trade schools, it is hoped that 
it may prove a valuable nelp, not only to the students 
but also the instructors — in that under classified head- 
ings any or at least most of the subject matter relating 
to the branches taught will be found treated and the 
questions which are added at the end of each heading 
will permit its use as a text book in such schools. 

It makes no claim to be able to lead the student along 
as fast nor as well as he would under the personal sur- 
veillance and advice of a capable instructor who can 
demonstrate an error in a practical way — but where 
it is used as an adjunct to his oral instruction and as a 
book of reference by the student, it will greatly facili- 
tate the acquiring of knowledge. 

The lack of such a book for the purpose indicated 
above, is one of the main reasons for its publication — 
aside from the need of a manual covering the ground 
and subject matter treated in a late and up-to-date 
manner. 

Again it is repeated that many branches of painting 
require appliances, tools, colors, etc. To save repeti- 
tion, each of these are treated fully but once, under 
their several headings, and if the reader will care to 
inform himself more fully in regard to any of these, he 
can readily do so by referring to the paragraph num- 
ber indicated as cfescribing such. 

With the above synopsis of the scope and manner of 
handling- the subject matter of the book, it is presented 
to the world — not as the acme of perfection, which un- 



6 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

fortunately is unattainable, but as a helping hand to the 
student or others seeking general information on the 
paint and kindred trades — with the hope that many 
may be benefitted by its perusal, study, or use as a ref- 
erence book. 

F. MAIRE. 



MODERN PAINTER'S CYCLOPEDIA 



ADULTERATION - 

I. There is much less need of an extensive knowl- 
edge of the "how to detect" adulteration in painting 
material today than was necessary only a decade ago. 
Thanks to the wise action of the general government 
and that of many of our state legislatures, the gross 
adulterations to which all such material had been sub- 
jected then, has been greatly curtailed since. At the 
present time it is possible for one to know to a cer- 
tainty the composition of any color, or what are the 
contents of any barrel, can or other package containing 
paint, varnishes, vehicles, etc. The law in many of our 
states forcing the manufacturer to state upon the label 
the name of every ingredient entering into the compo- 
sition of the contents. So if the name of a desired color, 
say Chrome yellow, medium, is printed upon the label 
as pure, and the name of the manufacturer appears 
upon it too, one may be safe in buying it for what it is. 
The greatest danger is in the buying so-called second 
quality goods. In the above instance suppose the label 
said ''Chrome yellow — medium. Contents, chrome yel- 
low and barytes. Of course this indicates that it is not 
pure — but how much pure? It may contain 25% pure 



8 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

chrome yellow and 75% barytes which is about the 
average in the better grade of off colors, or it may be 
10% chrome yellow, and even much less, and the rest 
barytes. And in the dry colors many run as low as 3% 
actual colors to 97% barytes chalk or other adulterants. 

2. In colors or pigments dry or ground in oil, water 
or japan, there is a possibility of greatly adulterating 
most of these without any remarkable change in the 
looks of the goods themselves, so that it requires a 
knowledge of the principal ingredients used in adulter- 
ating to understand how to detect them. 

3. Heavy weight colors are usually adulterated 
with some substance of as near the bulk or weight as 
their own; besides the adulterant must be as clear or 
colorless as possible, so as not to change materially the 
color or tone of the pigments they are added to. If 
much lighter in weight the usual size package used to 
pack the pure color would have to be greatly increased 
to accommodate the larger bulk of the adulterant needed 
to make up the weight. This would at once give it 
away in the mind of one who is at all familiar with the 
customary packaging of pure goods. 

4. a. What is known as Barytes or Barium Sul- 
phate is the most common adulterant used in the sophis- 
tification of all heavy colors. This substance seems em- 
inently well fitted for this purpose as when mixed in 
oil it is so very transparent that it may be painted over 
new wood in several coats without hiding the grain of 
the wood much more than so many oilings would have 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 9 

done. This great transparency enables the color (?) 
manufacturer to add it in nearly any proportion de- 
sired to colored pigments. But it is after all mainly as 
an adulterant of white lead and zinc white, that it shows 
lip to the best advantage — as an adulterant. It is the 
nearest substance in weight to white lead, being very 
heavy, and known as heavy spar in lead mines where 
it is frequently found. This great density permits the 
use of a package for the adulterated lead little greater 
than that used for the strictly pure article. It is said 
nearly — but not quite. An expert will detect even the 
slight enlargement of the package necessary to contain 
a given weight. 

b. Some of the colored pigments themselves are 
adulterated with barytes to an extent and degree in- 
credible to the uninitiated. Some of the stronger ones 
are frequently met with — especially in the dry state, 
containing as much as ten or twelve times their own 
weight of barytes, while in such pigments ground in 
oil the proportion ranges from '75% to 500% in ex- 
treme cases. 

r. The pure food laws, so called, are of doubtful 
utility in that in most states the percentage of each sub- 
stance or ingredient in a compound is not stated, but 
the adulteration is only indicated by the mention of its 
presence. So one is left to guess at it. In the preced- 
ing paragraph 4 b. it is stated that the proportion may 
be any\yhere from 75% to 500%. Seventy-five per 
cent., high as that may sound (i part color to 3 parts 



10 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

adulteration) is legitimate for many colors that are very 
strong arid w*hich cover well in the self color, or which 
are very seldom used for tinting purposes. Chrome 
green and all the fancy named proprietary greens, by 
common consent and custom have sanctioned it, are all 
made on that basis. The pure color used in painting 
in its self color will cover very little more surface than 
the commercial, which is adulterated in the proportion 
stated of 3 to I. In that it cheapens the cost of the 
goods, it really becomes a benefit to the consumer, that 
is when confined to the well known trade custom limits 
— but unfortunately it is not always done, and in the 
dry colors especially, the coloring matter contained in 
some goods is little more than that used in the pre- 
paring of colored chalk. 

5. To detect the amount of adulteration present is 
not so difficult as may be supposed it is. There are two 
very distinct methods of doing this. First, by a chemi- 
cal analysis (quantitative) which, if properly made, will 
give a complete tale of the quantity of each ingredient 
entering into the compound. As most of the readers 
of this book are not chemists and as the cost of an anal- 
ysis properly made will usually cost far in excess of the 
value of the material under examination, it must be 
waved aside as impracticable to most people. 

While without question a chemical analysis is the 
most satisfactory, and only correct manner of deter- 
mining adulteration accurately, fortunately there is a 
way of approximatively fixing the amount of it in any 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 11 

goods that no one need buy adulterated goods without 
knowing very nearly just what he is paying for; nor 
has one any need of a knowledge of chemistry in mak- 
ing the test. 

6. This test is called the "Scale test." To make the 
test all the implements required is an accurate pair of 
scales with weights in grains or grammes. What are 
known as army surgeon's scales or any of the apothe- 
caries' pocket scales will do. A few sheets of waxed 
paper. A few pieces of glass, well cleaned, to lay the 
colors upon. A palette knife to triturate the colors with 
and some blotting paper to absorb the oil out of colors 
so that each may have the same consistency. The above 
or equivalents are all the appliances needed to equip one 
for testing. 

7. The testing is made in the following manner: 
The person wishing to make a test should have a sam- 
ple which is well known to be genuine to use as a stand- 
ard to judge of the value of a similar color about to be 
tested. These standard colors can easily be procured 
at any color or painter's supply store, by procuring tubes 
of Windsor and Newton's artist colors in tubes. These 
are standard colors of known purity and while there 
may be a number of others as good as they, none will 
surpass them and they will be found better, while many 
will be found inferior to them. So that if W. & N.'s 
are not procurable any other made by a reputable house 
will be found sufficiently good for the purpose. 

Now it stands to reason that if two similar colors to 



12 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

be tested are equally pure that an equal weight of each 
color when triturated with two batches of white lead 
both also of an equal weight it follows that when the 
two colors have been mixed each one separately with 
the lead — that the tint made will be very nearly of the 
same strength of tone if both are equally pure, but that 
if one has been adulterated then it must lack in coloring 
matter to about the same quantity or percentage as had 
been added of adulteration to the pure color in the first 
place. 

Thus if one grain or gramme of say — chrome yellow, 
is carefully placed upon a small square of waxed paper 
(about }i inch square) and afterward weighed care- 
fully upon the balances, then placed upon a piece of 
glass, rubbing the waxed paper over the glass to remove 
all traces of color from it; then triturated with say 50 
grains or grammes of white lead, also placed on waxed 
paper and carefully weighed, the tint resulting from the 
triturating should be spread out on the glass, bringing 
it quite to one edge of it on one side, so as to permit of 
an easy inspection of each sample when placed side and 
side together; then afterward doing the same with the 
other color in each case in like manner, that if there 
be no adulteration that there will be but very little dif- 
ference in the tints made. 

If the color examined has been adulterated, the titit 
it will make with white lead will be much weakened as 
stated before. Now to determine in a sufficiently ac- 
curate manner what the proportion of adulterant has 



Modem Painter's Cyclopedia 13 

been added to it— all that will be necessary will be to 
add more white lead to the tint made by the stronger 
color until it is reduced to the strength of the tint made 
by the weaker color. The tint made by the addition of 
more white lead should be reweighed. 

Thus if one grain of color and 50 grains of white 
lead produced a tint that is fully equalled by one grain 
of another color and 250 grains of white lead, it must 
be that the color which is the weakest has been adulter- 
ated with four times its own weight of some kind of an 
adulterant which has lessened the proportion of color- 
ing matter to the same proportion that the adulterant 
contained in it bears to the pure. 

This test is especially valuable for all chemically made 
colors having well known formulas. It is useful, how- 
ever, to determine the relative value of most all the 
earth colors also with the exception of some very few 
transparent ones whose chief value consist in this very 
transparency and their brilliancy of tone. In the latter 
case the mere strength test is of little value. Under 
the subject head of colors by referring to paragraphs 
61 to 74, fuller information is given regarding their 
value and really substitution takes the place of adulter- 
ation for such. 

8. To test adulteration in white lead made by the 
Dutch process or the hyd.-carb. of lead, a very simple 
test is made use of to detect such. Place a small bit of 
the lead to be tested upon a sliver of pine wood, light a 
match, bring the flame from it in contact with the lead 



14 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

on the stick. In a very short time, if the lead is pure, 
some very fine globules of metallic lead will appear 
upon it. It may possibly take a couple of matches to 
make the test satisfactory, if one has been careless in 
not getting the full force of the flame in the first one. 

The blow pipe test is more satisfactory but it some- 
what more difficult to make ; requiring also a blow pipe 
which is a tube curved at one end and a piece of char- 
coal. A candle is also necessary. Place some lead in 
a small cavity prepared in the charcoal, put the char- 
coal with the lead on it in the left hand and near the 
candle, then blow the pipe upon the flame of the candle 
in such a way as to deflect the blue flame resulting from 
the blowing upon the lead. This will burn up the oil 
and in a minute the lead, if it is pure, will have resolved 
itself into a small metallic globule of pure lead. 

If the lead has been adulterated with as small a 
quantity as io% of barytes zinc clay or silicate earth, 
it will not reduce to the metallic state and as no one 
would undertake to adulterate lead with as small a 
quantity of barytes as that for it would not pay, it will 
be easily understood that if it will not reduce, it is 
surely adulterated much more than that. 

It may be well to state here that the above tests will 
not apply to any other form of white salts used as paint 
which are derived from lead. Sublimed lead, for in- 
stance, will not be reduced by it, being a basic sulphate 
of lead. It would need fluxing and a very high degree 
of heat to reduce it and such a test is not to be thought 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 15 

of to a novice or others unfamiliar with the process nor 
equipped for it. 

The described scale test reversed will give a fair in- 
dication of the amount of adulteration in any sample 
of white lead. To make the test — only the one color 
must be used taken from the same can. Weigh one 
grain of color, which place on glass — repeat this and 
place the color upon another glass; then weigh 50 
grains of lead which place with the first grain of color 
weighed out ; repeat this but use 50 grains of the white 
lead you wish to test. The first having been taken from 
a keg which is known to be pure ; the other being the 
suspicioned one. Triturate each upon their separate 
pieces of glass, if one has been adulterated, it will lack 
in opacity and body and the color will be able to tint 
it to a very much deeper tone than it has been able to 
do with the pure lead, which being more opaque, will 
hide the coloring matter much more than the adulter- 
ated sample has been able to do. In other words the 
stronger the lead — the less will a given weight of color 
change its color. 

Now to return to the practical side of the test; if 
one grain of Venetian red has been able to color 50 
grains of lead known to be pure then it will be safe to 
infer that the first contains 33 1/3% of white lead and 
66 2/3 barytes or other adulterant; or i part lead, 2 
parts adulteration. 

While- the above tests are all approximative, they 
are practical and easily made, being within the possibil- 



16 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

ity of everyone, requiring no knowledge of chemistry 
and while not conclusive as to what the adulterant 
really consists of, in reality this knowledge is not very 
important to the purchaser of color. It shows him how 
much valuable material is contained in the various sam- 
ples tested and after all that is the main thing for him 
to know. He can know to a certainty whether he is 
paying a right price for his goods or whether he wants 
them at all or not. 

QUESTIONS UPON ADULTERATION. 

1. What can be said generally about the adultera- 
tion of colors, etc., at the present time? 

2. Are adulterated colors readily distinguished 
from those that are pure ? 

3. What kind of an adulterant is required for 
heavy and light colors respectively? 

4a. What adulterant is mainly used in white lead? 

b. Is barytes used in adulterating colored pig- 
ments ? 

c. Are the pure food laws a complete protection 
against the adulteration of color ? 

5. How is the amount of adulteration detected? 

6. What is needed in making the scale test? 

7. Describe the manner of making the test. 

8. How can strictly pure white lead be tested for 
purity ? 

THE BLISTERING OF PAINT. 

- 9. There are several causes which produce the blis- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia . 17 

tering of paint, but only two principal ones are worthy 
of any attention, as all the others are variations of the 
following two agents, to-wit : Moisture and heat. 

10. Moisture is the principal direct cause produc- 
ing nine-tenths of all the blistering of paint on the out- 
side of buildings. 

11. But it cannot really produce a blistering of 
paint without the concurring assistance of heat, 

12. With the numberless essays which have been 
written and the endless discussions which have taken 
place at Painters' Conventions and elsewhere relating 
to the blistering of paint, it must be acknowledged that 
there are many points involved in this relation which 
are as yet but improperly understood. 

MOISTURE. 

13. Some parts of its action upon paint is very 
plainly to be seen, so that nearly every one who has 
given the subject a thought, one would suppose some 
uniform explanation would be given of it, yet upon the 
very plainest action of moisture many intelligent men 
differ materially in explaining its action upon paint. 

Moisture in the paint itself very rarely injures the 
painting done with it, however strange it may sound 
for one to make the statement. Thus emulsated paints 
properly prepared will last fully as long as paints 
which have not been prepared by emulsion — but they 
must have been prepared scientifically or they usually 
will be found short lived enough. 



18 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

a. If moisture is present in the wood over which 
paint is appHed or that can be sucked up from the earth 
by capillary attraction as in stone, brick and cement 
structure, then there is great danger that the paint 
will blister sooner or later. 

b. As stated before there must be heat present to 
help moisture in producing a blister. Heat acts upon it 
in this way : Moisture may and does remain confined 
for a long time when there is no way opened for it to 
escape. So long as it remains in the state of water it 
will never produce a blister. For this reason one never 
hears of blistering in late autumn, winter or early 
spring. 

c. But when that water becomes heated by the hot 
sun it is turned into steam ; as it is prevented from evap- 
orating by the impervious coat of paint. In expanding 
itself into steam it forms a blister large enough to hold 
it under the paint which has been softened by the heat 
of both steam and sun from both sides. 

d. This skin may or may not break out so as to 
let the steam escape into the atmosphere. When it does 
not do so, as soon as the atmosphere becomes cooled the 
steam is condensed into water again. Anyone can 
easily prove this to his perfect satisfaction by pricking 
the bubble with a pin when the water will at once run 
out. 

e. It is very seldom that blisters caused by moisture 
can ever be seen except upon the south side of build- 
ings, the west and the east but mostly on the south, then 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 19 

next in number on the west and least on the east with 
none on the north. This order verifies the theory ad- 
vanced that moisture without the aid of heat will not 
cause blistering of paint as the south which receives 
the sun's rays nearly all day shows the most blisters, 
the west next and the east its weakest as it receives 
early morning rays and the intense ones only for a 
short time about lo to 12 noon exhibits the smallest 
number of blisters 

The above applies to wood, brick, stone, or cement 
buildings alike, if they absorb moisture — the wooden 
from imperfectly seasoned lumber and the others by 
capillary attraction from the earth or by defect in the 
roof or eaves, causing moisture to run down behind the 
paint. 

HEAT. 

14. We have seen its action in the foregoing para- 
graphs in conjunction with moisture. 

a. Heat alone, if it be great enough, will blister 
paint and the best proof of it is : That most of all old 
paint removed from overpainted surfaces, is chiefly 
taken off by the aid of the paint burners which heats 
it and softens it into heat blisters. 

b. There are other instances where blisters are pro- 
duced directly by the action of heat without the aid of 
moisture: ist where a very dark paint has been applied 
to a surface which before had been coated over with 
a very light tint. It is explained in this way : Light is 



20 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

reflected by white and all light tints, and absorbed by 
all dark ones; therefore the dark coat will absorb the 
sun's rays readily, but it stops at the light color under- 
neath and instead of further penetration the reverse 
takes place — it is there reflected. The heat having 
softened the linseed oil contained in the upper coat 
which from its having been put there more recently is 
yet full of elasticity, will swell cut from the pushing 
away influence it receives from the heat and light re- 
flected by the light under coat and gradually loosen itself 
from it far enough away that there is no more expan- 
sion needed. These bubbles or blisters are always dry 
when pricked through, showing no moisture and are 
always seen above the light tinted coat underneath, 
leaving that intact upon the building. This class of 
blisters are very similar to the ones formed upon paint- 
ed surfaces too near a stove and other places subject to 
overheating. 

c. There is another instance where an upper paint 
coat will separate from an under one — this is due to 
the action of moisture — not in the wood, brick, stone 
or cement — but from its development in the under coats 
of paint. It can be traced as readily as the former and 
as easily understood. 

It is a well known fact that clay will absorb and give 
out moisture. Some pigments like our American 
ochres, for instance, are composed mainly of alumina 
(clay) colored by ferric hydroxides. They may have 
been very thoroughly dried before grinding in oil and 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 21 

all the care possible taken to have the article in good 
condition and as the oil used as a vehicle remains sound 
and impervious there will be no trouble between the 
clay ochre priming or sub-coats and the superadded 
ones, as in that condition an air-tight overcoating of the 
upper layers of paint protect it from moisture; but as 
soon as the natural decay of the linseed oil has fairly 
commenced, then the trouble commences, although it 
is imperceptible at first. The oil having lost all its 
glycerides, their place forms very fine pores or con- 
duits through w^hich the moisture will find its way to 
the clay based ochre underneath and as it, too, has felt 
the effects of the decay in its own coat of oil, this 
moisture is absorbed by the clay in wet weather and as 
freely parted with in dry hot weather. The sun soften- 
ing the oil of the upper coat makes it impervious again, 
its action upon the moisture contained in the clay ochre 
is to turn that into steam — ^that of steam is to expand 
and to vaporize and become absorbed by the atmosphere 
but being prevented by the softened coats of paint above 
it, it expands itself into a blister large enough to hold 
it. Then either of two things happen: ist the blister 
will burst and the condensed steam in the shape of 
water will run out; 2nd, or it will not burst and the 
condensed steam water will be held a prisoner under 
the blister till released by the breaking of the bubble or 
reabsorbed by the undercoat of clay ochre. 

This is. a form of blistering well known to every 
experienced painter in the land, but frequently misun- 



22 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

derstood by them. They know the effect, but many are 
not aware of the cause of it. It has led many to reject 
ochre altogether for priming. For a more extended 
notice of this peculiarity of ochres the reader is referred 
to paragraph 79. The above two reasons why under 
which 99% of all cases of blistering can be traced will 
suffice to explain the troublesome phenomena of blis- 
tering. As to the remedy, alas! there, is none but a 
removal of the cause. 

QUESTIONS ON BLISTERING OF PAINT. 

9. How many principal causes why paint blisters? 

10. Name the principal one. 

11. Name its accessory. 

12. Are the causes of blistering well understood? 

13. Describe how moisture affects paint in sub-sec- 
tions, a, h, c, d and e. 

14. Describe how heat affects paint in sub-sections 
Gj h and c. 

BRUSHES. 

15. Brushes are one of the most important line of 
implements used by the paint trade in all its branches, 
from the coarsest down to the finest of artists' work 
and next to skill in guiding them take the lead as help- 
ers to users of paint. 

In the description of all the various brushes used by 
the paint and paper hangers' trades which follows in 
the course of this heading, precedence is given to the 
larger, which will be reviewed first and downward to 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 23 

the smaller ones and this will be the case for each one 
of the raw material from which they are made — as 
bristle brushes are those which are used the most of all, 
brushes made from that material will be reviewed first 
from the largest to the smallest and the same course 
will be taken with all the other sorts as much as possi- 
ble, giving those which are mostly used in sequence. 

It is lucky that under the alphabetical arrangement of 
the subject matter of this book that brushes come in at 
the beginning of this manual, as there will be no need 
of any explanation under the various headings other 
than a reference to the figures and their number, thus 
showing at a glance the particular tools each branch 
requires. 

It will be in order here to state that the manufactur- 
ing of brushes has progressed along and kept up with 
advances made by other lines toward perfection, which, 
however, it has not yet attained — but great improv- 
ments have been made over the past. 

It is not intended to go very deeply into details con- 
cerning the manufacture of brushes. This would lead 
into an infinity of details requiring full and minute de- 
scription to be intelligently understood and really be- 
longs to a treatise devoted entirely to that industry. 
Nor would such details be of much interest to the users 
of brushes. 

1 6. The material from which brushes are made con- 
sists of the hair and fur of various animals, usually set 
in cement or in glue or in rubber^ and bound onto the 



24 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

head which is usually of wood by either thread, cord, 
wire or nailed metal strips or leather or a solid metal 
casing or vulcanized rubber. 

As has already been stated the brushes will be classed 
and described according to the raw material that they 
are made from and as near as possible in the order of 
their greatest usefulness. 

BRISTLES. 

Boar or hog bristles being by far the most important 
of all the raw material used in brush making, is en- 
titled to being noticed first of all. It enters into the 
manufacture of nearly all the brushes used in general 
painting. 

All the larger brushes flat, round or oval, are made 
of the very highest priced Russian bristles for the first 
qualities. It is claimed that the best of these are pro- 
cured from the wild boar. There is no doubt but that 
some bristles are obtained from that animal, but it 
seems doubtful if the crop of bristle from that source 
would go very far in supplying the quantity required 
for the consumption of the whole world. 

The semi-tamed Russian hog produces, fortunately, 
bristles that are little inferior to that of the wild hog. 
Those borne upon the crest of the neck of the animal 
being the most valuable, being strong, elastic and longer 
than upon other parts of the body, although the other 
parts also produce very good but shorter bristles. Their 
market value diminishes according to length from the 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 25 

longest to the shortest. But even in the smaller sizes 
the Russian hog bristles are superior to all others in 
elasticity and wearing qualities. 

The so-called French bristles into which class nearly 
all other European bristles may be placed, furnish a 
very good next quality to that of the Russian and for 
the purpose of making varnish brushes or fine brushes 
to lay color for the carriage trade, they even surpass 
the Russian on account of their greater fineness and 
smoothness. The black bristles known as Chinese bris- 
tles, do not all come from the Orient as their name 
would indicate, but most of it comes from many other 
countries in Asia and Europe, beside what is furnished 
by our own packing houses where everything belonging 
to the hog is carefully saved excepting the squeal it 
is said. 

Our own packing houses furnish the bulk of the 
bristles used in making brushes and their output is not 
confined to black bristles only, but to all the colors which 
the many breeds are characterized with. But while 
some very good bristles are originated here, it must be 
admitted that they are few and come from that now 
nearly extinct specimen — the razor back. High breed- 
ing seems to deteriorate the bristle so that while the 
flesh and fat producing has greatly improved, the hair 
is much inferior to the old native and the great bulk 
of American bristle is inferior to the European impor- 
tations. 



26 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

SIBERIAN ox HAIR. 

i8. Siberian ox hair of the best quaHty is said to 
be the clippings of hair from the inside of the ears of 
the Siberian ox. Whether other parts of the growth 
on the body is not also used seems doubtful as the quan- 
tity of brushes which are sold under the name would 
indicate that if only the inner part of the ear produces 
all that is used then they must have enormous herds of 
oxen in that country. The probabilities are that not 
only Siberia but America as well is called upon to fur- 
nish the material required for the brush matter sold un- 
der that name. 

The best quality is unusually springy and varnish 
brushes made from it are very highly prized by the fur- 
niture wood finishing trades for certain kinds of work. 
The sign painter also uses them largely in both the quill 
bound and flat sizes for the one stroke letter shape so 
much in demand now days. 

BADGER HAIR. 

19. Badger hair is the product of several animals 
belonging to the same family, "the marmotte' or ''mar- 
mouse" to which the badger and our famous weather 
prophet "the ground hog" belongs. It is long and while 
soft, it preserves its shape well. Finishing and flowing 
varnish brushes for both the wood finishing and car- 
riage trades are made from it. Gold tips and gold 
dusters for gilders. Blenders for the graining and 
marbling trades all prize it highly; nothing has been 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 27 

devised for that purpose that Is anywhere equal to 
badger hair. 

BEAR AND FITCH HAIR. 

20. These two may be bracketed together as both 
are used mainly for the purpose of making flow^ing var- 
nish brushes. They make most excellent brushes for 
the purpose either alone or mixed together in certain 
proportions which is thought to make them better by 
some wood finishers. Many carriage painters having 
become used to sable hair claim them to be better than 
anything else. 

SABLE HAIR. 

21. Sable hair of both the red and black variety 
are very highly esteemed by artists, decorators, sign 
v^riters and stripers. They are rather expensive but as 
they are much more durable and for the laying of heavy 
bodied colors are so much better adapted to the work 
than camel hair brushes are that the latter are losing 
ground for use in heavy weighted pigments w^ith all 
discriminating users. 

CAMEL HAIR. 

22. Camel hair is a misnomer as the squirrel fur- 
nishes the bulk of it, however, as it is known only under 
that name, it is likely to stick as long as the English 
language lasts. 

It is very soft and lays color very smoothly and when 
carefully done little if any brush mark will show. The 
better made brushes of that material are excellent and 
It would be a sad day for many workmen if the supply 



28 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

should suddenly be stopped as many would be com- 
pletely lost to know what to do in replacing them. They 
as well as all good things have a great fault in that 
being very soft, they have little elasticity and if used in 
heavy colors they are likely to bend and become de- 
formed. The carriage trade, the wood finisher, sign 
Writers, stripers, decorators, enamelers, lacquerers, art- 
ists, etc., all use them to a greater or lesser extent. 

2^. This concludes the list of raw material from 
which brushes are made for the paint trade with the 
possible exception of *'Tampico," which may be con- 
sidered as an adulterant and which is used chiefly in 
making up the cheaper grades of bristle brushes. It 
possesses not an atom of value other than to fill up a 
given space and takes up that which should be occupied 
by better material. It can scarcely be called a fraud be- 
cause such brushes are made for a class of trade who 
want to buy something for nothing and they must be ac- 
commodated. But the advice given to those who buy 
brushes is to buy the best only. The first cost of a brush 
may be large in comparison to the poor tool, but it is 
actual economy to buy the best, as they last much longer 
and enable the workman to do his work in a creditable 
manner, which is nearly impossible to do with poor 
tools. 

BRISTLE BRUSHES. 

24. Under this head all bristle brushes made for 
the general paint trade, including the decorators, etc., 
will be reviewed and an illustration of each kind given, 



Modem Painter's Cyclopedia 



2S 




Fig. 1 — Kalsomine Brush. 



m 



Modern Painter^s Cyclopedia 



which will show the shapes. As, however, all or most 
of them are made in several qualities and sizes, it will 
be impossible to give all these in ''illustrations." In 
the description the various sizes that each is made up 
in will be given. > 

a. The calcimine brush is probably the largest and 
most expensive brush made for the paint trade. The 
best are made from long springy Russian stock and on 
downward to clear Tampico. They are made on a flat 
wooden head with a wooden handle and are bound in 
metal nailed on to the head, usually galvanized iron is 
used for the purpose. They are made in three sizes: 
6, 7 and 8 inches wide. See Fig. i. 




Fig. 2— Extra Wall Stipplers. 

6. Wall stipplers are long bristle brushes made 
upon an oblong square head usually in two sizes, 3^x 
8 and 3>^x9 inches. These brushes are used only in 
following up wall painting to obliterate brush marks 
and producing a uniform grained finish to the work,_ by 
beating the painting evenly all over. The head is a 
wooden one and the finished tool looks like a mam- 
moth cloth brush. See Fig. 2. 

c. Flat wall brushes are made up in all qualities 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 31 

and widths of head from 3 to 5 inches wide, and are 
bound to a wooden head and handle by a metalHc 
band or by a leather binding when they are then known 
being set in a rubber head and vulcanized. This pre- 




Fig. 3— Stucco Wall Paint Brush, 
vents the losing of hair. See Fig. 3 for the shape of 
as "stucco wall" brushes. Some are also made by 




Fig. 4— stucco Wall Paint Brush. 

metal bound wall, and Fig. 4 for the "stucco or leather 
bound." 

d. Round bristle paint brushes are made in many 
qualities, weights and lengths of bristles ; in open cen- 
ters, semi-open centers or full stock, besides a number 
of patented arrangements each claiming to be ''it/' 
The binding is usually wire or cording or set in a solid 



32 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

rubber head. The sizes run by o from i.o the smallest 
to 8.0 the largest. See Fig. 5. 

e. Oval bristle paint brushes only differ from the 
above by the shape of the make up which as the name 
indicates is oval instead of round. In qualities and sizes 
they are similar to the round brush described in the 
preceding sub-section. See Fig. 5, which also repre- 
sents it fairly well only that the handle is flatter than 
in the round brush. 



Fig. 5. 

/. Painters' dusters, either round or flat, and in 
many qualities of white or black bristles. The best 
quality is that known as the coach painter's duster and 
are made in white bristles only. The length and thick- 
ness of hair make the selling price higher and lower 
running from 3^ to 5 inches long. See Fig. 6 for the 
round. The flat is shaped like Fig. 3 only more loosely 
put together. 

g. Before closing up on the large bristle brushes it 
will be well to note ''the whiteivash heads" as some- 
times tne painter is called upon to do that kind of work ; 
besides being an excellent tool to do calcimining with 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



33 




Flat Painter's Duster. 




Round Painter's Duster. 
Fig. 6. 




Fig. 7. 



34 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

also in apartments where furniture, carpets, etc., en- 
cumber a room so that stepladders and scaffolding is 
not to be thought of, a long handle can be set in the 
whitewash head and the work of calcimining a ceiling 
done from the floor. They come in widths ranging 
from 6 to 9 inches. They are bound to the wooden 
head by either metal bands or leather. The illustration 
shows the leather bound. See Fig. 7. 

li. Sash tools are made either round or oval full 
length of bristle or chisel edge. They are bound by 
cording, wire, a solid metal head or set in a hard rub- 
ber head and in many qualities of material. They come 
in numbered sizes. No. i being the smallest, to No. 10 
the largest. See Fig. 8 for the full length hair and 
Fig. 9 for the chisel edge shapes. 

i. Coach pointers' spoke brushes run in sizes from 
No. I to 3 and are used chiefly by the carriage trade, 
but they are also very useful for a number of purposes 
in general painting where a long but slim brush is to be 
used. Decorators in water colors will also find them a 
handy tool for coves, etc. See Fig. 10. 

y. Glue brushes are usually metal bound and well 
set. They run in sizes from 000 to No. 4 or from ^ 
inch to ij^ inch in diameter. See Fig. 11. They are 
also made flat, metal bound, and from i inch to 6 
inches wide. The flat brushes are also made chisel 
edged. See Fig. 12. 

k. Painter's car scrub brushes are made from very 
stiff bristles and run in sizes from No. 4 to No. 6. It 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



35 




Fig. 8— Sask Tool. Fig. 9— Sash Tool, Chisel Edged. 



36 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



is a very useful tool to the carriage painter. See 
Fig. 13. 

BRISTLE VARNISH BRUSHES. 

/. Bristle varnish brushes are usaully made oval 




Fig. 10— Coach Painters' Spoke Brushes. 

and are bound with wire or by solid metal heads and 
with full length of bristle or chisel edged in many qual- 




Fig. 11 — Round Glue Brushes, Gray Bristles. 




Fig. 12— Flat Glue, Gray Bristles. 

ities and sized by o from i.o the smallest, to 8.0 the 
largest. All have flattened wooden handles, Fig. 14 
showing the full length and Fig. 15 the chisel edge 
shapes. Fig. 15 also shows the solid metal head. 

There are also a number of different qualities of flat 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



37 



varnish bristle brushes from very good to very poor 
single thick, double thick, full length bristle to chiseled 
edge. The shapes vary very much as well as that of 




Fig. 13— Painters' Car Scrubs. 

the handles. The two Figs. i6 and 17 will suffice to 
show the leading shapes. Like all flat brushes they are 
sold by the inch, being made from i inch to 4 inches, 
graded by half inches between. 

Coach painters and many others use a brush made up 
very much like the one shown in Fig. 15, and which is 
known as a coach painter's color brush. 

m. Stencil brushes are used for the purpose indi- 
cated by their name. Like, all the rest there are many 




Fig. 14 — Gloss Oval Varnish Brushes. 

qualities. They are bound with wire or set in a solid 
metal head or band. In size they run from i inch to 
2>^ inches in diameter. Figs. 18 and 19 illustrate the 
two bindings. 

n. Artists and decorators in both water and oil 
colors use a number of round, flat and triangular shaped 



38 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 




Fig. 15— Oval Chiselled Varnish Brush. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 39 

small brushes with either short, medium or long bristles. 
According to what they have been designed for they 
are called a multitude of different names, as marking 
brushes, artists* ' round and flat bristle, fresco round 




Fig. 17 — Badger Hair Flowing Brush, 
and flat, these cover about all the varieties. They are 
all metal ferruled with a long slim handle. They usu- 
ally run in numbers from i to lo for the round and 
from % inch to 1 34 inch wide for the flat ones, by yi 
inch gradations. Fig. 20 illustrates the round and 
Fig. 2 1 the flat sorts. 



40 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



0. Weighted brushes for poHshing waxed floors for 
or waxed varnished ones, are extensively used at the 
present to imitate dead rubbed poHsh. They are shown, 
in Fig. 22. 

p. The wood finishing trade uses many of the bris- 





Fig. 18. 



Fig. 19. 



Stencil Brushes. 

tk brushes which have been described for filHng, shellac- 
ing, etc. They buy those under the special names that 
they are wanted for, but differ so slightly from many 
of the flat stucco wall brushes that Fig. 4 will give one 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 41 




Fig. 20— Fresco Bristle Brushes. 



42 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

a good idea of their shapes and sizes. However, the 
furniture trade uses a brush known as rubbing brushes 
which is illustrated in Fig. 23. This brush comes in 
many shapes or forms with enough variations to suit 
all the views of the finishers. 

The brick liner, a tool used to color the mortar line 
on painted brick being shaped very nearly as the above 
only that it contains only a very thin row of hair, it will 
not be necessary to describe it more. 

PAPER hangers' bristle BRUSHES. 

q. The paper hanger's paste brush is specially made 
so as to rub out paste easily, but many paper hangers 
use a worn out calcimine brush instead. It is illus- 
trated in Fig. 24. 

r. Paper hangers' smoothing brushes are made 
from one to four rows of stiff bristles, wire drawn, in 
several qualities and are sized according to the length 
of head from 10 to 14 inches wide. Fig. 25 shows the 
ordinary smoothing brush and Fig. 26 the combination 
smoothing brush and seam roller. 

GRAINERS" BRISTLE TOOLS. 

s. Grainers use a few bristle brushes which are 
shown by the following illustrations: Fig. 27 shows 
the stippler used in putting in an all over coarse grain 
as in walnut, chestnut, etc. Fig. 28 shows the fantail 
overgrainers which are sized according to width of 
head from i inch up to 4 inches wide by half inch grad- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 43 



Fig. 21— Artist's Bristle Brushes. 



44 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



ations. Fig. 29 shows a grainer's mottler and Fig. 30 
a bristle piped overgrainers, etc. 

BADGER HAIR BRUSHES. 

25. a. The badger haired Hozving varnish brushes 
are the principal ones used by the carriage and car 
painting trades and are also well liked by some wood 
finishers. They are all made chisel edged and bound in 




Fig. 21a. 

metal on a flat wood head or a continuation of the metal 
binder into a head with wooden handle attached. They 
are made single and double thick, ranging in sizes by 
y2 inch gradations from y2 inch to four inches wide. 
Fig. 31 shows both the single and double shape. 

b. Gilders tips are made from either badger or 
camel's hair or a mixture of both as the squirrel is usu- 
ally too flimsy by itself. See Fig. 7^2. 



Modern Painter*s Cyclopedia 45 

c. The knotted honehead badger hair blender of the 
grainer's trade, is an indispensable tool ; it is used also 
by marblers and all painting requiring good blending. 




Fig. 22— Angular Bristle Fresco Brushes. 
It is sized according to width by half inch grad^trms 
from 2 to 5 inches wide. See Fig. 33. 

d. Round badger haired blenders are used princi- 




Fig. 23— Furniture Rubbing Brushes, 
pally by artists and as a duster by gold leaf workers. 
They are bound in quill and of various sizes grading 
by numbers from No. i to No. 12. See Fig. 34. 

ox HAIR BRQSHES. 

26. a. Ox hair flowing varnish brushes are very 
highly prized by many wood finishers. They are made 
single and double and come in sizes and shapes same 
as Fig. 31, which see. 



46 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



b. Ox hair fiat sign writers' brushes are made to 
supply the demand for a one stroke letter in a cheaper 




Fig. 24 — Paperhanger's Paste Brush. 

material than sable capable of carrying heavy colors. 
The size ranges by }i inch gradation up to i inch wide. 




Fig. 25 — Paperhanger's Smoothing Brush. 




Fig. 26. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



47 



See Fig. 35, which also illustrates all other makes from 
other material. 

c. Ox hair is also used in the make up of full lines 
of lettering and striping brushes, either bound in quill 
or metal. The illustrations shown below will also illus- 




Fig. 27— Walnut Stipplers. 

trate all other makes as shapes and bindings are about 
the same. See Fig. 36 for lettering and Fig. 37 for 
striping brushes, and Fig. 38 for metal bound handled. 




Fig. 28. 

The sizes in all kinds are numbered alike from No. i up 
to No. 12. Many kinds are only numbered to No. 6. 

RED AND BLACK SABLE BRUSHES. 

2y. a. Black and red sable brushes to all intents 

i 




Fig. 29— Mottlers. 



48 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



and purposes may be classed together, as they are nearly 
alike in working qualities. As they are very springy 
and soft at the same time, they make up a very valuable 









Ilia 



Fig. 30— Piped Overgrainers, Etc. 

flowing varnish brush which is highly prized by coach 
painters and wood finishers. They are made up in same 
sizes and shape as shown in Fig. 31, which see. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



49 



b. Black and red sable sign writers, flat one stroke 
{ettering-, are the best of the kind for heavy colors. 




Fig. 31 — Badger Hair Flowing. 

While costing more than any other, they last so much 
longer in good condition if taken care of that they are 
the cheapest in the end. Same sizes and shape as shown 
in Fig. 35, which see. 

c. Sign writers' quilled and ferruled letterers are 
the same in size and shapes as shown in Fig. 36. 



■■liiiiiiiii 



Fig. 32— Gilder's Camel-Hair Tips. 

d. Striping brushes of this material are indespensa- 
ble for use in heavy colors. See Fig. 37 for shape 
and sizes. 



50 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

e. Red sable artists' b rushes are well known the 
world over. No other material could well replace it 
for use in heavy colors. They come both round and 




Fig. 33— Flat Knotted Badger Blender. 

flat, ranging in number from No. i the smallest, to 
No. 12 the largest. See Fig. 39, illustrating both. 

FITCH BRUSHES. 

28. The Fitch Hozving varnish brush is the only 
valuable brush which comes under that name. It is 
w^ell liked by some carriage painters and to some extent 




Fig. 34 — Round Badger Blender. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 51 

by some wood finishers. See Fig. 31 for shape and 
sizes. 

29. Bears hair flowing varnish brushes are very 
valuable either when made up of that material alone or 
when mixed with some other material, which is too 




Fig. 35— Flat Black Sable Lettering Brushes, 
stiff by itself as a corrective. The wood finishing trade, 
especially the better class of furniture manufacturers, 
use it in great quantities. It is made up in same sizes 
and shape as shown in Fig. 31, which see. 

CAMEL^S HAIR BRUSHES. 

30. a. Camel's hair varnish brushes are used for 
many purposes and by nearly all branches of the paint- 
er's trade. They are very soft and lay varnish very 
smoothly. They all are made flat on somewhat vari- 
ously shaped heads with shorter length hair than var- 
nish brushes from other material are usually made as 
otherwise they would work too flabby. Their sizes are 
numbered according to width in >^ inch gradations 
from >^ to 4 inches. See Fig. 40. 

b. The earners hair mottler is a somewhat similar 
brush, but longer haired and thicker than the varnish 
brush. The mottler is used by many carriage painters 
as a color brush, but is specially made up then with 
thicker liair than the ordinary mottler used by grainers, 
stainers and others. They are metal bound and sized 



52 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 





Fig. 36— Lettering. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



53 



according to width from i to 3 inches by J4 inch grad- 
ations. See Fig. 41. 

c. Camel hair lacquering brushes are used by all 
trades where lacquering is done. They come both 




Fig. 37 — Striping Pencils. 

round and flat. Both are metal bound. The round are 
sized from No. i to No. 6. The flat according to width 
by % inch gradations up to i inch wide. See Fig. 42. 
d. The camel hair quill bound and ferruled letter- 
ing — the flat one stroke letterer and the striping brushes 




Fig. 38— Round. 

of that material, are excellent tools to work in the 
hghter weight colors. See Figs. 35, 36, 37, 38 and 39 
to illustrate the shape and sizes of the several brushes 
mentioned. 

e. The camel hair dagger striping brush is a shape 



54 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



well liked by many stripers, as much longer lines can be 
carried through without filling than with other shapes. 
See Fig. 43. They come numbered from No. i to No. 4. 

QUESTIONS ON BRUSHES. 

Generalities ? 



15. 
16. 

17. 



What material is used in making brushes? 
What can you say concerning hog bristle ? 




Fig. 39— Artists' Red Sable Brushes. 

18. What can you say regarding Siberian ox hair? 

19. What can you say regarding badger hair? 

20. What are bear and fitch hair brushes mainly 
used for? 

21. What kind of brushes are made from red and 
black sable? 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



55 



22. 

23- 

24. 



What can you say regarding camel hair? 

Is Tampico useful as brush making material? 

a. What kind of brushes are made from bris- 



tles ? b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, I, m, n, 0, p, q, r, and ^ ? 




Fig. 40— Camel's Hair Mottler. 

25. a. Describe the flowing varnish brushes. 
h. Describe the gold tip. 

c. Describe the knotted bonehcv^d badger 

blender. 

d. Describe the rounded blenders. 




Fig. 41. 

26. a. Describe the Siberian ox hair flowing var- 
nish brushes. 
h. Describe the ox hair flat sign lettering 

brushes. 
c. .Describe the quilled and ferruled ox hair 
lettering brushes. 



56 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



27. a. Describe black and red sable flowing var- 
nish brushes. 
b. Describe the sable one stroke lettering 
brush. 




Fig. 42 — Camel's-Hair Lacquering Brushes. 

c. Describe the quilled and ferruled sable let- 

terers. 

d. Describe the striping sable pencils. 

e. Describe the sable artists' brushes. 




Fig. 43— Champion Sword Stripers. 

28. Describe the Fitch flowing varnish brush. 

29. Describe bear's hair flowing varnish brushes. 

30. a. Describe the camel hair flowing varnish 

brush. 

b. Describe the camel hair mottler. 

c. Describe the camel hair lacquering brushes. 

d. Describe the camel hair lettering brushes. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 57 

e. Describe the camel hair striping brushes. 
/. Describe the camel hair striping dagger. 

CALCIMINING. 

31. Under this appellation will be considered all 
plastered wall painting done in water colors and dis- 
temper, except the more artistic and difficult section 
better known under the name of fresco painting. 

There are several ways of spelling the name used in 
describing the process such as : kalsomine, calsomine, 
distemper work and so forth, but all are one and the 
same thing. The root word calc — being taken from the 
Latin for chalk, which is the main material used in 
preparing it. 

Calcimining in one form or another has been used 
from time immemorial, probably ever since walls have 
received coats of plastering to make them more level 
and pleasing to the eye than the naked rough stone 
finish did. As this of itself was already a step towards 
embellishment it is but fair to infer that the same desire 
for the beautiful must have prompted the uniform 
coloring of the plastering at nearly about the same time 
for the purpose of still further embellishing the interior 
of dwellings. 

Walls covered with coatings of water colors and 
lime are and have been unearthed in Asia Minor and 
Egypt, which are nearly as old probably as the begin- 
ning of civilization in man. One must look for prehis- 
toric remains where everything is blank for a time when 



58 . Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

painting in some form with water colors was unknown 
as remains of it are to be found with the oldest records 
existing of all the ancient civilizations. Nor is the old 
world the only place where such records exist for the 
Aztec civilization existing in America previous to its 
discovery by Columbus is particularly rich in fairly well 
designed and colored remains of its most ancient 
periods. 

At the present time fully 98 per cent of all wall color- 
ing and embellishments consist of water color painting 
or printing which are either used upon the walls direct 
or pasted upon them in the shape of wall paper, which 
after all, is but — watercolored paper. 

Many persons become confused by the same thinef 
being called by so many different names. The decor- 
ator hardly likes to have his work known under the 
name of calcimine (which is all it is in fact) as the 
name sounds too common, so he dubs it fresco, which 
it is not, or distemper or watercolor painting, which it 
is in common with plain everyday calcimining ; but the 
other names sound more aristocratic and under those 
names he can command a very much larger price than 
he could under the other and he can hardly be blamed 
for it. 

The name distemper is taken from the French 
"d'etrempe" or colors mixed with w^ater (drenched). 
The name is certainly very appropriate for the French 
at least ; but why should English speaking nations call 
it that when the words "water color" are well under- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 59 

stood to mean the same thing and are never misunder- 
stood by anyone. 

It is hoped the above will remove any misapprehen- 
sions any one may have had as to these various names 
meaning different sorts of wall painting— they are all 
one and the same. 

TOOLS NEEDED FOR CALCIMINING. 

32. a. Galvanized pails holding about 12 qts. can 
be found at any hardware store. A strip of tin or 
wire should be soldered across the top about. 2/3 of the 
distance of its diameter, this simple contrivance will 
be found very convenient for the purpose of removing 
any surplus color not wanted on the brush, it will also 
act as a support for the brush when not in use, keeping 
it flat and in good shape. However, it is only a con- 
venience but not a necessity. Besides there are many 
specially contrived pails for sale at the supply stores 
which are tony looking affairs, but none will be found 
much superior to a good galvanized pail with a wire 
soldered across its face and these will cost much less. 

h. An iron stand to rest the pail upon in order to 
raise it to a convenient height to dip the brush into 
when working on a scaffold is a necessity, and will 
quickly pay for itself in time saved bending down to 
the floor each time color is wanted and will save many 
a backache. A fair but a much more clumsy substi- 
tute can be- made by using a wooden box of about the 
proper height. 



60 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

c. The calcimine brush (see Fig. i). Buy only the 
best — others lare mere makeshifts. The first cost of a 
brush, well made and fitted to this work, will more than 
be repaid over the price of an inferior one in a single 
day's work by the increased amount of work that can 
be done with it — to say nothing of the ease of spreading 
the calcimine and the certainty of a good looking job 
when done and of the cleanliness made possible by their 
use. A good workman can take a high grade calcimine 
brush and work over carpets without dropping any 
color upon them — if careful. This, of cours-e, is not 
advisable and carpets, furniture and everything that 
could possibly be injured should either be removed or at 
least covered over — but it is within the possible to not 
drop anything upon them. 

d. A number of smaller flat and round brushes will 
be needed by the decorator in lining off his work and 
in hand work decorating also for reaching into coves 
and mouldings where his larger brush could not be 
made to reach. For shapes and sizes of these see Figs. 
lo, i6, i8, 19, 21, 22. 

e. Step ladders (see Fig. 78). 

/. Tressles and planks (see Fig. 79). 

g. Chalk line and plumb bob to lay out work with. 

h. A small portable stove to warm or boil water 
upon to melt glue with. In fact all paint shops need 
one as there are many uses to which they can be put. 
A small gasoline stove is probably as convenient and as 
cheap as any thing that could be got. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



61 




Plate r. 



i^? Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

u A glue pot to melt glue in although It is not a 
necessity especially if the glue has been soaked up in 
cold water some time before, as when it is swelled up 
warm water will quickly dissolve it without bringing 
it to a boil. 

/. A T-square, some lining straightedges, a 2-foot 
rule and an awl to hold the chalk line are needed wher- 
ever any attempts are made at decorations. 

The above comprises about all the most essential tools 
needed in applying calcimine. A number of others will 
be needed by the decorator in water colors, and will be 
treated more fully under several headings where water 
colors are employed in the more artistic branches of dis- 
temper work. 

33. a. The material required for calcimining i^ 
fully described under the heading of colors (see para- 
graphs 61 to 84) it will only be necessary to state that 
whiting is the mostly used base upon which are added 
the coloring pigments necessary to produce the tints 
required. Under heading of color mixing (see para- 
graphs 61 to 84) full directions are given for making 
them. It will be useless even to name over the colors 
which are used in water color painting as nearly every 
pigment known can be mixed for use in water color 
painting. The base is the most important of all. The 
whiting should be of good quality, well washed of sedi- 
ments and the colors of pure tone, so as to produce 
clean looking tints. Some prefer to mix their tints on 
a zinc white base, claiming that the tints so mixed are 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 63 

clearer toned and cover better in one coat. It increases 
the cost somewhat, but that will not count on first class 
work. 

h. Glue is used more extensively than any other 
substance to bind the colors with, for it is both cheap 
and convenient to handle. Some of the decorators use 
gum arabic to mix the higher priced colors used on the 
finest work. There are also a number of patented sizes 
on the market for which superlative excellence is 
claimed, which probably will be found convenient but 
none so far have been able to supplant good glues for 
general use. 

THE WALLS. 

34. Calcimining or water color painting is chiefly 
done on plastered walls. To a great extent it depends 
upon their being in a proper condition as to whether 
the work shall look good or bad when completed. 

An ideal wall to work upon is one that will be suffi- 
ciently hard to have but little suction, nearly but not 
quite non-absorbent. The patent plastered walls left 
either in a stipled rough state or covered over with a 
skim coat of plaster paris make an excellent surface to 
calcimine upon. 

But — alas! all walls are not in such a condition. 
With all the cheap John sort of plastering that is being 
done by contractors at a price which would mean a 
sure loss to them if they used good material, but which 
must be done so as to make a profit anyhow, many of 
the surfaces the calciminer has to deal with will be 



64 Modern t^ainter's Cyclopedia 

found very porous and absorbing, having a great deal 
of suction ; in many instances so much so that the calci- 
mine will be absorbed from the brush as soon as it is 
laid upon the wall so that it will not be possible to 
spread it any distance from where the brush first 
touched it. Such walls are called in the vernacular, 
*'hot walls." They constitute the most troublesome 
and disagreeable feature of any of the ills belonging to 
the calcimining trade. 

35. The only sure way to enable one to do good 
work upon such walls is to stop this suction. There 
are several methods employed to do this. The old 
timers used to do this by using sizing, double sizing, 
etc., but it never was an entire success in that glue ab- 
sorbs and gives out moisture with the result that decay 
of the glue soon commences and cracking of the glue 
underneath the calcimine which is soon followed up by 
the scaling of the whole thing in flakes like bark coming 
ofif a sycamore tree. This will not always follow sizing, 
but the chances are that it may, so that today there is 
but little sizing of walls being done with glue. 

The better way is to give the walls a coat of what is 
known to the trade as a siirfacer. 

36. A surfacer in reality is a varnish specially pre- 
pared with a view of filling and stopping suction. It 
enters the porous plaster, forming an impervious coat- 
ing upon them over which one good coat of calcimine 
usually makes a good looking even finish. 

Many surfacers are placed upon the market with 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia S5 

astounding claims and loaded down with superlatives 
and adjectives sufficient to cause an ordinary circus 
poster to blush; nevertheless they usually do the work 
of stopping the suction and that is the main thing re- 
quired. 

Any quick, hard drying varnish will do the same 
thing and it is even intimated by some that gloss oil 
will do so. While this may be true iri some instances, 
no one should be advised to put their trust in it and at 
best it should not be used if anything better can be had. 
Furniture, No. i coach and the cheaper so called ''hard 
oil" varnishes will be found much safer than gloss oil. 

37. The surfacing coat being thoroughly dry, which 
requires from 10 to 24 hours according to the composi- 
tion of the surfacer, the walls are ready for the calci- 
mine. (For its preparation see paragraph 96.) 

If the rooms or halls are large and high ceiled, it 
will be much better to have tressles of the proper height 
with a flooring of 2-inch walking boards across them, 
sufficiently close together that the workmen will not 
have to waste any of his precious time shifting the 
boards about while he should be at his work busy on 
fresh edges upon which he can join before they have 
set, thus preventing an ugly lap line, showing at the 
end of every stretch. It should be remembered that the 
quicker the work can be done and finished from the 
time it has commenced to completion the better the job 
will look anjd the less likelihood of the surface showing 
brush marks and laps. 



66 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 




Plate II. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 6*7 

The calcimine need not be rubbed out and laid off 
like oil paint. It will be sufficient that the color be laid 
on so as to cover every portion of the work without 
skinning it or leaving any holidays upon it (holidays in 
painters' parlance means a spot left untouched by 
paint). To insure having gone all over the surface of 
the wall, the better way is to first lay the color all over 
cross ways of the stretch then to brush it the long way 
of it. In this manner should there be any pin holes or 
places left untouched by the first cross brushing, the 
second will be almost sure to catch it unless the work 
is done in some very dark place where it is impossible to 
see what is being done. 

If the suction has been properly stopped and the 
calcimine properly mixed the job will present an even 
and perfectly covered appearance of a beautiful flat 
finish entirely free of brush marks and laps ; but it some- 
times happens that the suction has not been perfectly 
stopped or that the calcimine has been imperfectly 
mixed. In that case it will be necessary to give the job 
another coat. To give this second coat one should pro- 
ceed in exactly the same manner as has been described 
for the putting on of the first coat. 

Where there has been no stoppage of the suction of 
the plastered walls and they are "hot" or in an absorb- 
ing condition, it is possible to go over them in a "way" 
which reduces the suction trouble to a minimum. It is 
this : to calcimine mixed in the ordinary way add about 
4 ounces of glycerine to the gallon pail. One ounce of 



68 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

powdered alum previously dissolved in warm water 
with just enough of that to dissolve it added for each 
gallon of calcimine, will also help. Some add a J^ pint 
of molasses to the gallon. The idea in all these addi- 
tions is to retard the drying in of the water paint on 
the plaster long enough that the next brushfull ap- 
plied will still find the spot covered by the previous one 
wet enough to blend in with it without rubbing up. 
Glycerine has a great affinity for moisture and will 
retain it, so has molasses to some extent, but in a much 
lessened degree. A little soft soap is also of good 
benefit in retarding the drying in, beside giving to the 
calcimine much easier spreading properties. 

38. It is usual to count all ornamental work even 
that done in stencils over distemper painting as ''fresco 
painting," but it is hardly proper to call by that name a 
paneled ceiling or walls stenciled with some simple 
designs or even with a stenciled center piece, corners 
and brakes. While properly speaking there is no fresco 
painting done in the United States, the name stands for 
a higher and more artistic class of work than that 
spoken of above. Every calciminer should be able to 
do this simple ornamentation without trouble. 

To lay out a ceiling with a center panel with stiles 
surrounding it in different color requires but little skill. 
A chalk line should be used to mark out the outlines 
accurately and the various colors carefully cut in up to 
the line. When dry it is ready to be lined up with 
such line work as is necessary and stenciled in appro- 
priate colors. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 69 

Under the heading of stencils a full description is 
given of the ''how to make them" beside the proper 
way of using and taking care of them. (See para- 
graphs 290 to 302.) 

QUESTIONS ON CALCIMlNlNG. 

31. What is calcimine and calcimining? 

32. a. What kind of pails are necessary? 

b. What support is required for them ? 

c. What is the main brush used in laying it 

on walls? 

d. What other brushes are necessary? 

e. How is the work reached? 
/. What other means ? 

g. How is work laid out? 

h. What are the best means of heating water 

i. What is required to melt glue in? 

y. What other tools are useful ? 

33. What material is employed in mixing calcimine ? 

34. What has been said regarding walls ? 

35. How can suction be stopped in hot walls? 

36. What is a surfacer ? 

37. How is calcimine applied? 

38. How are walls and ceilings laid out into panels, 
stiles, etc. ? 

CARRIAGE PAINTING, CAR AND COACH 
PAINTING. 

For all practical purposes, all the above stand upon 
one and the same footing. The underlying principles 



7^' Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

and the reasons why of everything connected with them 
all being the same and having the same foundation. 

Why is it that carriages, cars, coaches, and all vehi- 
cles, delivery wagons, automobiles, in fact all vehicles 
making any attempt at brilliancy by a polished varnish 
surface and which are used out of doors for a great 
part of the time, subject to all the vicissitudes and hard- 
ships, great changes of temperature resulting from the 
inclemencies of the weather, why is it that such vehicles 
are painted in an entirely different manner than that 
used for the painting of buildings which have to be out 
in the weather all the time, summer and winter when 
the heat will almost boil water or get down below the 
o mark until mercury will freeze solid? 

At first sight one would think that what was good 
enough for the painting of buildings which have to 
stand so much more hardships from the weather than 
vehicles usually do, that the same treatment applied to 
vehicles would be just the right thing for them. 

All are well aware that house painting is chiefly done 
■by using linseed oil as a binder and vehicle of the pig- 
ments used in doing the work and really it is by this 
use only that a lasting job of painting can be done at all 
upon these while in the painting of carriages and other 
vehicles linseed oil is dispensed with in all but the first 
priming or foundation coats. Even if that first priming 
coat could be put on with any other liquid vehicle that 
would do the same good that is expected of it — it is 
more than likely that there would be none used at all. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 71 




Plate Til. 



72 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

This seeming inconsistency and variance is due to the 
fact that a perfectly level surface has to be made up for 
a carriage before it is Colored and varnished, which is 
non-elastic or very slightly so or at least no greater 
than that of the varnishes themselves is. It is neces- 
sary that all coatings going onto the vehicle conform 
themselves to this end: the making of all the 
coats as near as possible, of each being as near like the 
others in contraction and expansion. Now if after 
the priming, linseed oil was used instead of japan and 
varnish as binder and vehicles, the varnish, which is 
composed mainly of hard gums would be unable to fol- 
low the greater expansion and contraction of the under- 
coats where the linseed oil was used with the conse- 
quence that it would have to give or crack, which means 
the same thing, to accommodate itself to its more pliable 
neighbor and the job would soon be an eyesore — be- 
sides oil coats have usually the very bad habit of sweat- 
ing through the varnish coats and stickiness would en- 
sue, which would catch all the dust and dirt it could 
:arry and hold it there. So that what was once a thing 
of beauty would soon become an eyesore to look upon. 
It can thus readily be seen why it is not employed in 
carriage painting. 

THE TOOLS REQUIRED. 

40. a. Round or oval bristle brushes to do the 
priming with. It does not matter so much about size 
or shape. It should possess sufficient elasticity and firm- 
ness that the oil can be well rubbed in with it. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 73 

b. A fair sized flat wall brush rather stiff but elas- 
tic, to put on rough stuff with, with some smaller ones 
to use in places where the larger ones would not readily 
reach. 

c. Some good heavy camel hair mottlers to lay color 
coats with somewhat identical in shape to Figs. 31 or 
41. Also some oval bristle chiseled edge varnish 
brushes which are used for the same purpose. (See 
Fig. 15.) 

d. Some badger, fitch and camel hair brushes to 
use in flowing, rubbing and varnishing running gear 
parts. (See Figs. 31, 40, 41.) 

e. Coach dusters, preferably made of white bristles 
fine and soft, to clean all dirt and dust with. (See 
Fig. 6.) 

/. Spoke brushes, which are long and slender, to 
reach down to the hub of wheels. (See Fig. 10.) 

g. A number of various sized kinds of lettering, 
striping and artists' brushes for ornamenting, in both 
camel hair and sable. (See Figs. 36, 37, 39.) 

EQUIPMENT USED IN CARRIAGE SHOPS. 

41. a. Every shop aims to adapt its contrivances 
to do work with in accord with its own particular needs 
and requirements. The ones described below need not 
be after any set pattern. Almost anything which will 
answer the purpose intended for will do from the crud- 
est to the very costliest, if they permit the painter to get 
at his work and do it without loss of time and con- 
venience. 



74 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

h. The most important are good tressles of proper 
height or adjustable, to lay bodies upon during the 
painting and drying operation and some others for 
carriage parts. 

c. Varnishing stands made to tilt are the most con- 
venient and require special mention. They need not 
be very expensive either, 3 legs and a tilting top 12 
inches square is all that is needed. This arrangement 
permits the workman getting all the way around the 
job without any hindrance from the tressle legs. 

d. Wheel jacks, which may be simply a post with a 
projecting peg to hang the wheel upon and turn it grad- 
ually while it is being painted or varnished. 

e. Frames for bodies, gears and seats, each spe- 
cially designed for the particular parts they are wanted 
for. 

/. Some good brush keepers — some for color 
brushes, others for the different brushes used in var- 
nishing, preferably one for each brush to hang in its 
own kind of varnish. There are a number of very good 
ones on the market that are patented and in which 
brushes can be suspended without touching the bottom 
and with covered tops to prevent dirt or dust entering 
the keeper. One can make a very good individual brush 
keeper by going to the refuse heap, picking up some of 
the smaller sizes of tins wherein fruits and vegetables 
had been previously packed. Melt the top off, have a 
wire soldered on long enough to bend it so one end 
will act as a peg to fit a hole bored in the brush handle 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 75 

so the brush will hang free of the bottom of the can, 
then put the can into a large glass jar, some of the 
fruit packing jars will answer, and after the top has been 
screwed on one has an air tight and convenient brush 
keeper at small cost. The wire projecting above the 
tin itself will be found very convenient to lift it by, serv- 
ing as a handle when it is desired to take it out of the 
can. 

g. Putty knives in various shapes and widths, stiff 
and flexible square pointed and triangular. Spatulas 
for triturating and lifting paints and putties ; some good 
paint strainers for straining not only paint but var- 
nishes, compose the most necessary small and large tools 
of the hardware variety. 

THE MATERIAL USED. 

42. Nearly all the pigments used in painting are 
available for coloring carriages and wagons, etc., as 
colors or pigments are fully described in following 
pages under the heading "Colors," it will be unneces- 
sary here to repeat the same and the reader is referred 
to paragraphs 61 to 84 for full particulars concerning 
these. 

White lead either ground in oil, japan varnish or dry 
is probably the most important on the list, ochre and 
filling material next in preparatory work and blacks 
by long odds the most important in coloring coats, with 
a variety covering the whole chromatic scale in wagon 
and car painting. 



76 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 




Plate IV. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 77 

THE WORK PROPER THE PRIMING. 

43. This is the foundation upon which the whole 
superstructure will either make good or fail, therefore 
one should well understand its principles and take ^he 
utmost care in its performance in a good workmanlike 
manner. 

It has already been mentioned that the priming or 
foundation coat is the only one in which linseed oil 
should be used and the reasons therefore given. 
Under the name of priming, however, it is not meant 
the first coat (which is merely an oiling) but all coat- 
ings of the foundation for rough stuffing must be under- 
stood as forming a part of the priming. 

The first operation for the priming is the mixing of 
the color. This should consist of white lead colored to 
a deep gray with lampblack or white lead and ochre in 
various proportions also tinted with lampblack, which 
should be greatly thinned with raw linseed oil to which 
has been added a little dryer. The pigments themselves 
are understood as having been finely ground in oil and 
to have been so thinned, that the application of the 
priming may be said to be the giving the job a coat of 
colored oil. While the coating is thin the going over 
the parts painted must be plainly seen to have been 
colored by it. The work of its application with the 
brush must be thorough and put on with plenty of elbow 
grease, well brushed in — not simply gone over. 

The primed parts should be laid aside where they 
will have a chance to dry well and ample time should 



78 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

be given it for the same. The priming and for that 
matter all painting done with linseed oil may feel dry 
and seemingly hard under the touch of the finger, this 
is not an indication, however, that it is through dry- 
ing. It is not one day nor two days that it will take 
for the oil to be dry, but — certainly no less than a week 
should be allowed and two weeks would be better. 

Under the high pressure system in vogue, this is now 
seldom done, but when it is a well known fact that 
linseed oil keeps absorbing oxygen from the atmosphere 
for about lo days and that during that period it is 
undergoing changes of both form and bulk — it in- 
creases about io% and it is not to be considered as dry 
until this change shall have taken place. It must 
readily be understood that another application of paint 
over the priming before the changes due to drying are 
completed that it will be imperfect and incomplete and 
greatly hindered by the application of another coat from 
access to air from which it draws oxygen which be- 
comes combined with it and forms a gum resin during 
the process of drying. 

44. a. This coat being dry should be followed up 
by applications which are best known as the lead coats. 

THE LEAD COATS. 

44. h. This is composed of white lead which has 
been colored with lamp black to a light slate or dark 
qray. The lead is what in carriage painting is known 
a5 keg lead or white lead ground in linseed oil, and 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 79 

hereafter when that term Is used, It means white lead 
in oil only. This should be thinned with about }i lin- 
seed oil and }i turpentine to a proper consistency for 
applying with a bristle brush, in a smooth even manner. 
Some painters prefer a flat lead coat or one which 
contains just enough linseed oil to bind it on, the thin- 
ner consisting chiefly of turpentine. 

THE RUB LEAD. 

45. This Is without doubt the better way of prepar- 
ing the job for further operations. It consists in mix- 
ing dry white lead to which a little lamp black has been 
mixed in about % parts of raw linseed oil to which J4 
part of japan has been added, to a stiff paste and the 
same ground up In a shop paint mill and afterward 
thinned in the same proportion of linseed oil and japan. 
It should be applied as stiff as it can be worked, with 
a half worn out stiff bristle brush. After It has been 
spread let it stand a few minutes, just enough to let it 
take on a tact^ when the lead rub coat should be rubbed 
over with the palm of the hand. It Is needless to say 
that this rub lead coat should not be applied over the 
lead coats mentioned in paragraph 44, but Instead It 
takes their place and should be applied directly over the 
linseed oil priming first described. This requires some 
little time to harden sufficiently for further operations, 
and for that reason Is considered too slow in many 
shops, although It is undoubtedly the 'Very best w^ay" 
to proceed in surfacing the priming. 



80 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

KNIFING IN LEAD. 

46. Knifing in lead is a quicker way of surfacing" 
the priming coat. The lead used for this purpose is 
specially ground in japan for that purpose, but many 
prefer to mix it themselves from dry white lead mixed 
in various proportions of rubbing varnish, japan and 
turpentine. As the name indicates, it is spread with a 
knife. It requires careful manipulations so as to level 
up everything perfectly and it should be well pressed 
into any cavity or depressions. As work which has 
been "knifed" is seldom rough stuffed afterward it 
should be done so well that it will in a manner take the 
place of that operation. In fairly good work it is never 
used on bodies or wagon beds, but for the cheaper and 
medium grades even the bodies are "knifed in." 

PUTTY AND PUTTYING. 

47. The next operation in order after the rub lead 
has become hardened sufficiently is to putty up the job 
previous to rough stuffing. It is made by triturating 
together dry white lead, rubbing varnish and japan in 
about equal quantities. The consistency is somewhat 
variable for the different purposes that it may be 
wanted for, but for general purposes it should be suf- 
ficiently thin that it can be made to enter readily into 
any opening about to be filled, but also thick enough 
that the putty knife will made a clean level cut over it, 
as otherwise such parts will be eyesores, especially if the 
job is not to receive any rough stuffing. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



81 




Plate V. 



52 Modern Painte/s Cyclopedia 

SAND PAPERING. 

48. After the puttying has dried and hardened suf- 
ficiently, the job is ready for the sand papering. This 
should be very carefully done with fine sand paper to 
level up any of the putty which rises over the parts sur- 
rounding it. Great care should be taken that in using 
the paper too energetically, the lead coats may not be 
cut through, therefore it should be confined to the parts 
where it is needed and the rest very lightly gone over, 
merely to assure one's self that no roughness has been 
overlooked. 

THE ROUGH STUFF. 

49. a. It would be impossible to produce that 
piano-like smoothness of finish which constitutes the 
chief beauty of a carriage body, without rough stuffing 
it. Therefore the operation of rough stuffing consists 
in the perfect leveling of the surface over which it is 
applied. It fills up whatever inequalities may be upon it, 
small pores, etc., until it is as level as a slab of polished 
marble. 

b. The material used consists mainly of coarse min- 
eral paints which all the supply stores sell under the 
name of fillers, and these are combined with white lead. 
They are mixed in the proportion of 3 parts of the filler 
to I of keg lead, by weight, into a stiff paste in a thinner 
composed of equal parts of quick rubbing varnish and 
japan, thinned to the proper working consistency with 
turpentine. There are a number of other methods of 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 83 

mixing rough stuff, but the one given is that which is 
chiefly in use and will be found satisfactory. 

c. It should be put on carefully and leveled up with 
as much attention as in any of the other applications, 
but somewhat thicker than is required for color coats. 
While rough stuff should be thicker than those, yet it 
should be thinned sufficiently so as to allow of the 
proper brushing it out without dragging, and a good 
chiseled edge bristle varnish brush should be used 
which has been broken in but not much worn. (See 

Fig. 15.) 

It is a much better policy to give the job 3, 4 or even 
5 coats of rather thin coats than to try to accomplish 
the came object with two coats which are too heavy. 

The mixing formula given requires 24 hours drying 
before a next coat be applied. 

d. When giving the job the last coat of rough stuff, 
the latter should have a little Venetian red mixed up 
with it and should be thinned more liberally with tur- 
pentine than was used in the preceding coats. 

RUBBING THE ROUGH STUFF. 

50. a. If the rough stuff coats have been carefully 
put on, the work will now be in proper shape for "rub- 
bing down." 

There is nothing better for the purpose than the rub- 
bing brick which may be found in all the supply stores in 
the United States, ready prepared. The fine Italian 
natural blocks of pumice stone, well leveled, is still used 
where an extra fine job is desired. 



84 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

b. While the rubbing is being done the surface 
should be kept well wetted with clean water and often 
sponged off to keep it from gumming. 

c. And here is where the last guide coat prepared 
with Venetian red puts in its good end. If the work 
of rubbing the rough stuff has been carefully and sys- 
tematically done by rubbing the surface with strokes 
leading in one direction back and forth, without wig- 
gling or going over the surface in a haphazard way, 
when the guide coat has been cut through the surface 
will be level. Yet the cutting through of the guide coat 
is not always an indication that the work has been prop- 
erly done or leveled. The skilled workman however 
can readily ascertain this by passing the palm of his 
hand over it, and his fine sense of touch will readily 
give him notice of any imperfectly leveled parts. Time 
and experience alone will enable one to become a good 
judge as to whether the work has been well done or not. 

THE COLORING AND GLAZING COATS. 

51. a. Generally speaking concerning the applica- 
tion of the color coats, it must here be stated that it re- 
quires a good degree of workmanship to do it well. 

b. As to the tools used, nothing but a camel hair 
mottler or color brush should be used, (see Fig. 41) as 
the color should be laid very evenly and without brush 
marks. One thing the novice should learn to guard 
against is the brushing his work crossways at the ends. 
This should be avoided and it should be done by work- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 85 

ing the brush back and forth in one direction only and 
with an easy and even motion. 

h. Each color requires a somewhat different man- 
ner of handling, but on the whole this much can be said : 
never to put them on too thickly, and if the color is very 
transparent it is better to give the job more coats than 
to risk spoiling the smoothness of the surface of the job 
produced upon it by the rough stuffing process. 

c. It goes without the saying it again that no lin- 
seed oil is permissible in the application of color coats 
and that the thinner used for binding them should be 
varnish thinned with turpentine. 

d. While jobs require special treatment of their own 
from the ground up, they should first be cleaned of all 
dirty marks on the bare wood, then carefully oiled over 
with clear linseed oil, sand papered and painted over 
with a keg lead coat, thinned with i part of raw linseed 
oil with 3 parts turpentine. The puttying should be 
done on this coat, then it should be followed up with 
another thinned with only half as much raw linseed oil 
as the first had, with a corresponding increase of tur- 
pentine; then after lightly sand papering it, apply a 
coat of flake white thinned sufficiently to work freely 
under the brush. This flake white coat should be thinned 
with hard drying finishing varnish. These coats 
should be very smoothly and evenly put on and should 
be followed up with hard drying finishing varnish in 
which a little of the flake white has been added to hide 
the yellow tinge of the varnish. When dry rub with 



86 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 87 

pumice stone and apply another coat of the same var- 
nish, which should be treated as before. 

THE ORNAMENTATION. 

52. a. Some coach painters do the ornamentation 
and striping upon the last coat of color, but it is much 
better and safer to first give the job a coat of quick dry- 
ing rubbing varnish and to lightly rub it down with 
pumice stone, being careful not to cut it through into the 
color. This will act as a protection and prevent fatal 
results upon the surface as mistakes can be cleaned off 
the varnish coating which it would be impossible to do 
over the color coat itself. 

The ornamentation consists in fine, medium and 
broad lines or striping, scroll work, coat of arms and 
other ornaments, lettering, etc., etc., according as to 
what the job is; each having its own fashions as to the 
decoration, be it a coach, carriage, car, business wagon 
or whatever other name and kind the vehicle may be. 

b. The striping requires skill, so a novice will do 
well to acquire considerable of that before he under- 
takes the striping upon a good job, for he must have 
that and a good amount of confidence in himself to 
make a success of it. For the tools needed to do the 
work with the reader is referred to Fig. 37 for the 
shape of quill bound striping brush and to Fig. 43 for 
the sword striper, which is used in making fine lines. 

Colors for striping should be mixed with varnish, 
japan and turpentine, tempering these to suit the job 



88 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

and color used upon it, some colors requiring a lit- 
tle more of one and less of another than some others 
would. 

c. A great deal of the ornamentation done upon ve- 
hicles is by means of transfers. These transfers are 
printed in colors upon a specially prepared paper which 
is applied face downward upon tacky varnish on the 
job, or sometimes the varnish is applied to the ornament 
itself and then applied to the place wanted. After 
smoothing over the transfer, the paper is sponged on 
the back with clean water which it will absorb and swell, 
when it can be slipped about and off the job, leaving the 
ornament upon it held tightly by the varnish under it. 

d. Hand ornamentation requires both skill and time. 
Only such as possess the first should undertake it, as an 
eyesore and loss of reputation would surely result from 
a botched job. All colors used in ornamentation re- 
quire the same thinning and treatment as was described 
in Sec. B of this paragraph. 

Sign writing upon vehicles, aside from the fact 
that it is done in coach colors thinned in the same man- 
ner as stated in section b of this paragraph is done in 
very much the same manner as is fully described under 
the heading of Sign Painting, so the reader is referred 
to paragraphs 260 to 277 for fuller information. 

THE VARNISHING. 

53. a. The varnishing of vehicles is a very partic- 
ular branch of the coach painter's trade. It is almost 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 89 

needless to have to warn against varnishing a job where 
it will be subjected to dust, changes of temperature and 
the thousand and one other causes which will make 
varnish go wrong. Only those who are familiar with 
the host of *'make-varnish-go-wrong-agencies" have 
any idea of their multitude and extent. It also seems as 
needless to say that it requires skill and experience. 
Under the heading of varnishing, fuller directions are 
given as to the "how to do the work" and the reader is 
referred to paragraphs 312 to 317 for fuller informa- 
tion, but there are some peculiarities about the varnish- 
ing of vehicles which are their own and which are noted 
below. 

The skimpy, skinny manner of putting on varnish 
some workmen have who are always afraid of putting 
on too much and who brush out the little they put on 
to the last limit, will never make good carriage var- 
nishers. Even the rubbing coats are the better for hav- 
ing been flowed on, and they should be so put on es- 
pecially in shops where jobs can be tipted. 

It is necessary to caution especially against doing the 
varnishing in any place where dust cannot be kept 
out and where the temperature be regulated with uni- 
formity in cold weather. 

THE RUBBING COATS. 

54. a. The job should receive two heavy coats of 
rubbing varnish which is much better than double that 
number of coats put on thinly. As soon as dry, which 
will require two days, the rubbing may be done. 



90 Modern Painte/s Cyclopedia 

b. The needed material consists in a rubbing pad 
of felt which can be bought ready made at supply stores. 
These pads are prepared specially for all sorts of pur- 
poses in varnish rubbing. It is made of felt of different 
degrees of hardness and texture and varies in thickness 
from 34 to 2 inches. Chamois skins, sponges, pails for 
water and o or oo pumice stone. The Italian kind is 
much the best, running even and free of grit. Some of 
the American is very poor and especially gritty, for that 
reason it should not be employed in carriage rubbing as 
it would scratch the life out of a job. 

c. The job should be washed perfectly clean and 
dried by rubbing it over with a chamois skin, then it is 
ready to be rubbed. This operation is done by first' dip- 
ping the pad into clean water then into the box holding 
the pulverized pumice stone ; then proceeding to rub the 
mouldings and outside edges of panels, then proceed- 
ing towards the center where the rubbing should end. 
The rubbing should all be done in one direction, or as 
much as possible at least, and should be very carefully 
made. After the operation has been completed the job 
should be well washed and cleaned of the pumice stone 
and again dried with chamois skin. When all moisture 
has been completely dried it is then ready for the flow- 
ing finishing coats. 

THE FLOWING FINISHING COATS. 

55. As the name indicates these coats should be 
^'Howed" on for good results, or the mirror like surface 
which all the previous operations have led to step by 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



91 



r 



I! 
I 





92 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

step, will have been done to no avail. In putting on the 
flowing coats do all the parts adjacent to the panels first, 
finishing the wide panels last. The brush should al- 
ways be loaded full of varnish for in that condition the 
job can be gone over more quickly and easily. It should 
be cross brushed lightly before finally laying it off. 
See paragraph 312 to 317, under the heading ''Var- 
nishing," for fuller information. 

56. The varnishing of running gears is somewhat 
easier to do properly than that of bodies, but requires 
skill too. Only a small surface should be gone over at 
a time before laying off and it takes a watchful work- 
man to put it on. Much care should be taken to prevent 
dust and good cleaning done before and after each op- 
eration. In putting on rubbing varnish on the wheels 
always lay it off after having gone over half a dozen 
spokes or so. 

QUESTIONS ON CARRIAGE, CAR OR COACH PAINTING. 

39. Give a synopsis of the difference between car- 
riage painting and ordinary out door oil painting. 

40. a. What kind of brush is used in priming? 

b. What kinds of brushes are used in rough 

stufling ? 

c. What kinds of brushes are needed for color 

laying? 

d. What kinds of brushes are used for var- 

nishing? 

e. What kind of brush is used fo^ cleaning-? 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 93 

/. What tool is used in painting spokes ? 
g. What brushes are needed in striping and 
ornamenting ? 

42. What is said regarding the material used? 

43. What is priming? 

44. a. What are the lead coats? b. What is a 
flat lead coat ? 

45. What is a rub lead coat? 

46. What is knifing in lead ? 

47. How is carriage putty made and applied? 

48. How is the sandpapering done? 

49. a. What is rough stuff? 

b. What material is chiefly used in mixing 

rough stuff? 

c. How should it be put on? 

d. What is a guide coat? 

50. a. How is rough stuff rubbed ? 

b. How is rough stuff made ? 

c. How is it performed ? 

51. a. What is said in a general way concerning 

the color coats ? 
b. Are all colors used in color coats to be used 

in the same manner? 
C, Should linseed oil be used in the painting of 

color coats? 
(f. How would you proceed to paint a white 

job? 

52. a. What is said regarding ornamentation? 
b. How is striping done? 



94 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

c. What are transfers? 

d. What is said of hand decoration? 

e. What is said of sign work on vehicles ? 

53. What is said generally of varnishing? 

54. How is rubbing done? 

55. How is flowing varnish put on? 

56. How are running gears varnished? 

CHINA PAINTING. " 

57. China painting differs radically from any other 
sort in a number of ways. 

It is of course out of the question to think of using 
linseed oil and ordinary artists' colors mixed with it, as 
then the painting would be subject to many vicissitudes, 
it would be easily scratched, marred and even rubbed 
off, besides it would be impossible to use them 
upon the table as food carriers or holders, for 
many of the colors are poisonous and none of 
them very appetizing, and most persons w^ould as soon 
have them remain upon the platters or plates, much 
rather than having them mixed up with their food. At 
best such painting would render the article so painted 
good for show only, but unfitted for use ; to be hung 
upon the wall or placed on a shelf to look at, the same as 
any other oil painting done on canvas. 

The requirements of china painting are that both the 
colors and the medium used in their application 
shall be vitrifiahlc and assimilate or be capable of being 
incorporated with the blank china upon which the 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia $5 

painting is done that the two shall form but one in- 
separable whole and become one integral part of it. 

Therefore to accomplish this the colors must be either 
vitrifiable of themselves or be made so by a flux mixed 
with them that will attach them with an artificial coat- 
ing under the influence of a high degree of heat which 
melts it. 

As the coloring matter of many of the colors used in 
china painting are not developed until the china has 
been fired (put into a kiln and burned) it can easily be 
understood that in that alone it would differ from any 
other painting and must cause a novice some anxiety at 
first as to just what will be the results of his labor, as 
he cannot always perceive what progress has been made 
or whether the painting has been rightly or wrongly 
done. At best he is likely to spoil a few pieces in learn- 
ing by experience just how to handle these changeable 
undeveloped colors. This is probably the most trouble- 
some point of difference between china painting and 
any other. 

MATERIAL REQUIRED. 

58. There are to be found at the present time a 
great number of ready prepared colors with plates show- 
ing the exact coloring of each, just as they will appear 
after the firing. This simplifies the otherwise difficult 
task of knowing what color one must select for obtain- 
ing certain results. These ready prepared colors have 
the flux ready mixed with them or are in the shape of 



96 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 




1 




Plate Vni. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 97 

powders to which the flux must be added. Upon the 
whole it will be best for novices, as well as others, to use 
moist vitrifiable colors in tubes. These are nearly all 
the go now among amateur and professional china 
painters. They save the tedious and annoying methods 
of goneby days when it was necessary to prepare the 
medium by the slow processes of evaporation of spirits 
of turpentine and of oil of tar to make the fat oils of 
each. Everything can be bought ready prepared and 
ready to use. It has rendered a great service to the 
many who have taken up the painting of china as a 
pastime and for the many who now find pleasure from 
this employment of their spare time who would have 
been deterred from the undertaking but for this saving 
of drudgery. 

Small slabs with depressions upon them to lay colors 
upon and to hold fluxes, mediums, etc., should be pro- 
cured. Gold, platinum, etc. Gold and other metals 
used in decorating china can also be bought ready for 
use in all the shades of the metal and the different 
alloys. 

One should also be well supplied with many different 
sizes of camel's hair brushes to lay the colors with; a 
list of useful accessory tools and appliances would make 
up a fair sized pamphlet. As the description without 
the illustration of such by cuts would be more likely to 
be misunderstood than otherwise, the reader is advised 
to send to some of the art stores in our larger cities for 
an illustrated catalogue which will give him, for the ask- 



98 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

ing, a very full understanding of all the tools, brushes 
and appliances needed in china painting, besides giving 
him the price at which each is sold. 

THE PAINTING. 

59. Either outline the design upon the china with a 
lithographic pencil or with black leads. Some use India 
ink in outHning as it burns out entirely during the firing 
process, leaving the design painted free of outline 
marks and for that reason it is preferred by many. 

After the design has been laid out, proceed to paint it 
on by mixing the colors needed with the medium and 
applying them with a brush. 

The powder colors should be laid on a slab and be 
worked into a stiff paste with the fat oil which is after- 
ward reduced to the proper working consistency by 
thinning with spirits of turpentine. 

Those in tubes should be thinned according to direc- 
tions. 

60. After the ware has been painted it is necessary 
that it should be fired in an oven to vitrify the colors 
and bind them to the china. These ovens are portable, 
many of them, and are made small enough to suit the 
requirements of those who do not paint china in a com- 
mercial way. Again as in all our larger cities persons 
are found who fire china for an amateur clientele, many 
of these prefer to patronize them to save the expense 
and trouble of owning a furnace. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 99 

QUESTIONS ON CHINA PAINTING. 

57. What is said about china painting in general? 

58. What material is required ? 

59. How is the painting done? 

60. What must be done to vitrify the colors ? 

COLORS. 

61. Colors or pigments are of the utmost impor- 
tance to the paint trade and it should be a subject of 
great interest to every one who handles a brush. They 
should be well understood by men who make daily use 
of them, for without an intimate knowledge of their 
properties and peculiarities the painting done with them 
may or may not be all that it should be. Many a good 
job well brushed on has gone wrong because of the ig- 
norance of the painter who mixed the paint. 

It will be impossible in a work of this size to devote 
as much space to the subject as it requires, but of all 
the most important at least, an explanation of their 
derivation, composition, manufacture and uses will be 
given. Their chief properties will be considered and 
warning given of their antipathies for other pigments. 

For the purpose of examination the colors will be 
placed in groups — not because of nearness of relation 
to each other, nor of their chemical composition, be- 
cause colors with but little difference in their chemis- 
try may be of an entirely different color as the ferric 
oxide colors show — ochre being yellow, while the Ve- 
netian reds are red. So the colors will be grouped ac- 



100 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

cording to their coloring regardless of their composi- 
tion. 

62. Pigments are derived from each of the various 
kingdoms according as they are most important to the 
trade. First, those derived from the metals, as the 
leads, the ferric oxides, the zinc whites, those of copper 
origin, etc. Second, that numerous branch derived from 
the mineral kingdom, as the ochres, umbers, siennas, 
whiting, gypsum, etc. 

Third, those derived from the vegetable kingdom, as 
most of the lakes. 

Fourth, those of animal origin, as carmine, etc. 

63. While pigments can thus be classed according 
to their origin, they must be reclassed again for the pur- 
pose of examination and grouped together not accord- 
ing to their formation but according to their color. 

This will not only greatly facilitate the work but a 
comparison with others of the same color can be made 
more readily. Therefore they will be placed together 
into seven general groups. In each group the pigments 
which come nearest to its color will be classed. It is 
true that a few pigments will seem out of place as they 
border so near to another group that it is hard to tell 
which has the most claims for it, but only very few 
such cases will need bother one — the orange chrome yel- 
lows — some of the deeper one are really more red than 
yellow — and but for the fact that under the name of 
chrome yellow remarks are made which belong to the 
whole range of color of those yellows, no matter what 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 101 

their tone may be, they would have been included in the 
red — but for reasons stated they are best placed with 
the yellows. It saves useless repetition or the need of 
referring the reader to the proper paragraphs giving 
the explanations. 

64. a. For convenience sake then, the various pig- 
ments of real value to the painter have been classed in 
the seven following groups : 
I. The whites. 



The reds. 

The yellows. 

The blues. 

The greens. 

The browns. 

The blacks. 

b. As each pigment varies in character from others 
and better adapted to some uses than to others — some 
being worthless in oil, while they may be invaluable as 
water colors and vice-versa, they must not be judged 
by their unfitness for work to which they are not 
adapted. 

THE WHITES. 

65. a. As the whites are by far the most important 
of all the pigments used in painting, it is fitting that 
they should be placed at the head of the list. This is 
due to them, not only because of their self color, in 
which they are used in enormous quantities, but also 
because they are the dominant pigment or base upon 



102 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

which all light tints made by the addition of other col- 
oring pigments are effected. 

b. Whites are chiefly the products of the salts of the 
metal lead and that of zinc (its oxide and only white 
form). The rest of the whites being natural earths of 
various composition and extraction. In examining 
them the metallic whites being the ones mostly used will 
be placed at the head of the list. 

THE METALLIC WHITES. 

66. a. White lead heads the list by undisputed 
right, it being heads and shoulders ahead of any of the 
other whites, many times over more than all the others 
put together for out and indoor oil painting and well it 
deserves it. Its great covering power due to its opacity, 
(when the word covering is used in connection with a 
pigment it does not mean its spreading capacity so 
much as its opaqueness in hiding the coats of paint over 
which it is applied). 

b. Its peculiarities are that it forms a linoleate lead 
soap with linseed oil which renders it smooth and easy 
of application. This saponification does not extend to 
all the oil necessary to its application and it is a pity that 
it does not, as when dry the lead soap thus formed is 
insoluble. 

White lead should never be used where sulphurous 
fumes are generated, especially where sulphuretted hy- 
drogen gas is developed, as it greedily assimilates it and 
is turned into a black sulphide of lead. This change 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 103 

will sometimes occur over night. The atoms composing 
the lead seem to have no affinity for one another and it 
is no doubt due to this reason that whenever the linseed 
oil commences to decay that having nothing to hold 
them on they dust or chalk off, as under the name this 
peculiarity is best known. It is true that white lead, 
even the best of it, chalks, but if the painting has been 
done with good linseed oil the chalking will not com- 
mence so soon, nor really is this peculiarity worth men- 
tioning as a fault. A good coat of paint given soon 
after the lead is noticed to chalk will rebind on all these 
particles and the surface even when let go for sometime 
after that will always be in a good condition for re- 
painting as white lead never scales off that has been ap- 
plied with raw linseed oil. 

c. The best qualities of the white lead of commerce 
known to the paint trade as "strictly pure" is that cor- 
roded by the ''Dutch Process." This means that di- 
lute acetic acid, carbonic acid, oxygen and hydrogen 
are furnished to the lead in more or less ingenious ways 
and that those agents corrode and combine with the lead 
and that the product of the combination is what is 
known as white lead. White lead is a basic carbonate 
of lead, or to be more correct, an hydrate oxide carbon- 
ate of lead. The proportion may vary somewhat, but 
that agreed upon as being the best is about 1/3 hy- 
droxide of lead and 2/3 carbonate of that metal — more 
of the hydrate means better opacity but more chalking 



104 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

propensity. More carbonate means less opacity but also 
less chalking. 

d. There are two methods of corroding lead under 
the "Dutch Process" so called system, the stack and the 
cylinder methods. 

The stack method consists in placing what are known 
as buckles (these are thin perforated discs of metallic 
lead) into porous earthenware pots of somewhat the 
same texture as flower pots. These have a space at the 
bottom to hold dilute acetic acid of the strength of or- 
dinary vinegar and, along the sides are projections serv- 
ing to keep the buckles apart. This and the perfora- 
tions in the disc permits the acetic vapor and the car- 
bonic acid gas to come into contact with the lead. First 
a floor of manure or tan bark or a combination of the 
two is laid down at the bottom of the stack, then a row 
of empty jars which are afterward filled with buckles to 
nearly the top, then dilute acetic acid is furnished to 
each jar through a hose with a nozzle. Then the tier 
is covered over with boards which again are covered 
with manure or tan bark and the same operations are 
repeated until the stack is completed to the top. The 
stack starts from the ground upward to what might be 
called the second story, but which in corroding houses 
is known as the working alley, as all the material is first 
received there to be placed in the stacks, a row of these 
extending on both sides of it to any length desired. The 
compartments called stacks being about 8 or lo feet 
wide by about 12 to 16 feet long. There are stacks in 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 105 

the corroding houses in all stages of completion. Some 
finished and the jars containing corroded lead being 
taken out, others being filled, and so on. It requires 
about three months to complete the corrosion, which 
goes on as long as any acetic acid remains and enough 
heat in generated by the manure to evaporate it and 
furnish carbonic acid, the main element absorbed by the 
lead to make itself what it is — a basic carbonate of lead. 
Were it not for carbonic acid being present and the lead 
having more affinity for it than for the acetic, then it 
would simply become an acetate of that metal— of no 
value whatever as a pigment. 

c. The cylinder method is an entirely different sys- 
tem of applying the same elements entering into the lead 
corrosion, i. e., acetic acid, carbonic acid, oxygen and 
hydrogen, than that of the stack system, and produces a 
lead of the same chemical composition. 

The lead in place of being cast into buckles is melted 
and while it is being poured out, a jet of live steam is 
played against it, reducing it to very small globules of 
about the fineness of ordinary sand. This sand is 
placed in revolving cylinders (hence the name of the 
system) which are connected with generators which 
furnish it with acetic acid vapors, carbonic acid gas, 
oxygen and the proper moisture for hydrogen. These 
cylinders revolve slowly all the time and the particles of 
lead being very fine are soon acted upon and the whole 
mass becomes pretty thoroughly corroded inside of 
three to six days. Besides the corrosion is nearly com- 



106 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

plete, there being very little if any uncorroded blue or 
metallic lead remaining after the operation is over — 
which cannot be said of the stack process. 

/. Space forbids giving an extended description of 
the various handlings of the lead after it is corroded, 
before it is finally ground and packed ready for con- 
sumption in the way the painter is accustomed to buy it. 
There is no material difference between the two leads 
produced by either system. The difference is in the ap- 
plication of the corroding agents and time required 
with which operations the manufacturer is more con- 
cerned than the painter. The cylinder system does 
away with the application of manure, heat and carbonic 
acid being furnished from other sources. This manure, 
or rather fine particles of it, are very hard to keep out 
entirely in the stack system of corrosion. It is true that 
infinite pains are taken by conscientious manufacturers 
by repeated washings in water and fine silk gauze strain- 
ing to get all such out, but even with such precautions, 
either through neglect or the human depravity of some 
of the workmen, it is not unusual to find little specks of 
it occasionally in some of the lead corroded by that 
system of which the cylinder lead is entirely free. 

No one should be deterred from using either as the 
difference is immaterial; it is of course possible to make 
very poor pure lead by both systems and to have it off 
color and badly ground or packaged, but of that neither 
methods are responsible for. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 107 

SUBLIMED LEAD. 

6y. Sublimed lead is white and but that it would 
create confusion in calHng it "white lead" because it 
would then be confounded with what has become a well 
known article, which, when it has been labeled "strictly 
pure" is supposed to mean, "hyd-carb. of lead" and 
nothing else, but for confusing the two it would be en- 
titled to the name. But it would be unwise to open up 
a door which would break up the distinction between 
the two and to return to that state of uncertainty which 
in the past was so annoying and which it took so much 
fighting for, to establish upon the firm foundation it 
stands upon today. 

Sublimed lead is a basic sulphate of lead containing 
in its composition some lead oxide with a small per- 
centage of zinc oxide. It has much to recommend it 
for many purposes to which it is well adapted. It is 
extremely fine, so much so, that its particles float in oil 
without readily settling, making it an ideal dipping 
white paint. It is not affected by sulphureted hy- 
drogen gas, fatal to most all other salts of lead. It is 
somewhat less opaque than Dutch process white lead, 
therefore does not cover quite so well. It is produced by 
the vaporisation of lead ore. These vapors are con- 
ducted to chambers above where they come in contact 
with oxygen contained in atmospheric air, combining 
with it, form the oxy-sulphate of lead. This transfor- 
mation takes place in a somewhat similar manner as that 
which is described for the manufacture of zinc white 



108 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

(see paragraph 69). At the present time it is being 
used in large quantities by manufacturers of ready 
mixed paints and color grinders, but so far it has not 
appeared under its own name in its white state, but is 
found in many of the compound whites manufactured 
by color grinders. 

68. There are several other salts of lead that are 
white, such as the white oxide of lead and some other 
compound salts of that metal, none of which, however, 
have proven themselves formidable rivals of ''white 
lead" all having so many faults that the ones related as 
appertaining to Dutch process white lead seem "venial" 
when compared to theirs. 

ZINC WHITE. 

69. a. Is the white and only oxide of that metal. 
For painting material it is a very valuable pigment and 
after "white lead" is next to that, the most exten- 
sively used of all the white pigments by all classes of 
painters with the exception of the carriage trade. 

Its peculiarities are all its own and differ widely 
from those of white lead. It has more spreading power 
and absorbs more oil. It is not so opaque and in con- 
sequence does not cover so well as that pigment, but if 
its spreading power be taken into consideration, a given 
weight of it would probably cover over as much and as 
well as the same quantity of white lead would if 
thinned out sufficiently to cover as many square feet of 
surface as the zinc did. Zinc white cannot be applied 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 109 

with the same amount of linseed oil as would suffice to 
render the white lead thin enough to work well with the 
brush, as it is much lighter in weight. 

One of its peculiarities, is the great affinity existing 
between its atoms for each other, it is so great that after 
the oil has decayed they will hang together into a scale 
but never chalk off. In this respect it is the very oppo- 
site of white lead whose atoms we have seen have no 
affinity and which fall singly in what is known as 
chalking when the oil holding them together has de- 
cayed. But while this great adherence of its particles is 
good in some ways it has its faults too, in that when 
the oil has decayed instead of falling off single or 
chalking they hold together until they fall off as scales. 

Zinc white therefore is a good corrective to combine 
with white lead for outside painting while the lead 
itself is a good corrective for the too great affinity of 
its own particles. The zinc preventing the chalking 
off of the lead and the lead its scaling propensities. 

b. Zinc white is a very fine pigment to use in dis- 
temper, covering well and the tints made with it when 
used as a base are invariably cleaner and purer toned 
than those made with any other white as a base. The 
above also holds true for any tint made from it as a 
base with colors in oil. 

It IS invaluable for all enamelling work when ground 
in varnish. Some of the better kinds of French 
i3ffOcess made zinc whites are so very white in tone 



110 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

that ordinary white lead shows a yellowish tone when 
placed side by side together. 

Zinc white is the oxide of that metal and is made in 
two different ways — but by the same process of oxida- 
tion. These two methods are known as the "French" 
and as the ''American." The zinc white made by the 
so called French process is manufactured from the 
metal, while that named American from the zinc ore 
instead. 

THE FRENCH PROCESS. 

c. Zinc white made by the French process is pro- 
duced by placing metallic zinc in retorts or ovens where 
it is vaporized by heat — this vapor is conducted to 
upper chambers which are supplied with fresh atmos- 
pheric air for which the zinc has a great affinity in the 
state of vapor and with which it instantly combines 
when it comes in contact with it. From the ceil- 
ings of these chambers hang long sacks with their 
mouths opened and closely fitted together into which 
the floculent feathery oxide rises up and is caught up 
in these. The oxide which is caught the farthest away 
from the openings through which the zinc vapor arises 
from the retorts is the whitest and best — that which is 
caught nearest the openings usually containing more 
or less of foreign matter in the shape of dust, etc., 
which finds its way from the retorts into the chamber. 
This feathery mass is next subjected to a powerful 
compression when it is then ground up and packaged 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 111 

ready for the market in a dry state or to be ground 
up in oil or varnish. 

THE AMERICAN PROCESS. 

d. The American process of making zinc white is 
essentially the same as that related for the French, 
differing from it only in the shape of the raw ma- 
terial. Instead of using the metallic zinc, zinc ore be- 
comes the provider. That is placed in the retorts and 
vaporized in the same manner as related for the French 
process. However, as the ore contains so much more 
foreign matter and impurities the zinc white thus ob- 
tained is inferior in whiteness and quality to the first 
and is sold for less money than the other. 

e. The name of French zinc has lost its significance 
as to being an index as to the source of supply of that 
article as today there is as good a quality of French 
process zinc made in America and which commands 
as good a price as any zinc white imported from 
Europe. 

In both the French and American zinc white the 
first and second qualities are designated as green and 
red seal respectively. The green denoting the best qual- 
ity — the red the second. 

THE EARTH WHITES. 

70. a. Earth whites so called are all of mineral 
origin and according as they contain as a base either 
lime, clay, or sand are known as cretaceous, aluminous 



112 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

or silicious. All possess somewhat different properties, 
each being better than any of the others for certain 
specific purposes. 

b. Cretaceous earths are chiefly used in water colors 
and for that matter all earth whites are at their best 
in distemper and have that much in common, excepting 
when they are used in oils as adjuncts, correctives or 
adulterants for the metallic whites or any of the color- 
ing pigments where each differ materially from the 
other. 

The principal pigment with a cretaceous base is 
whiting or the carbonate of line, all others being 
simply variations of it more or less impure. Whiting 
is used in immense quantities as a base upon which to 
make the tints used in the printing of wall paper. As 
the main base in mixing tints for calcimme or in its 
self color, it reigns supreme and nearly all the ready 
prepared calcimine found on the market contain it as the 
main ingredient in their preparation. As an adjunct 
to graining colors in oil it is highly valued as it enables 
the grainer to reduce the strength of his colors so they 
can be thinned much more than would be possible but 
for the addition of the whiting. 

The only other cretaceous pigment of value which 
differs from whiting materially is Gypsum or the sul- 
phate of lime. It does not work quite so well as whit- 
ing in water colors and is seldom used as such without 
a special preparation which is patented and too intri- 
cate for use by the general painter. It is the base used 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 113 

in all the so called anti-kalsomine paints patented prep- 
arations. It is too transparent in oil to be of any use 
as a self paint but is valuable in the preparation of 
Venetian red where it becomes its base. It is also use- 
ful as a corrective in many of the other colors and 
in the compounding of white paints. 

There used to be a number of whites in the markets 
some years ago such as Spanish white, London and 
other fancy named whites, which were prepared from 
whiting and from which they differed only in the form 
given it of pyramidal drops or cakes. 

c. The only pigment with an aluminous base is 
''China clay" which is worth mentioning. It possesses 
more body in oil than those of the preceding class and 
when well cleaned of foreign matter makes a good 
water color paint. On account of its body, if such may 
be called a semi-transparent muddy looking stuff in its 
self color in oil it is used as an adjunct and corrective 
in many white paints which come ready prepared but 
it is used most frequently as an adulterant. 

d. The silicious whites are represented by the white 
silicate earths. Some are found that are of a clean 
white but most of them are generally off color. The 
white ones are used in the preparation of "English 
kalsomine" and used as water colors but they 
are very inferior to whiting for such a purpose. Their 
greatest utility as pigments lays in the silicate earth's 
use as correctives to the white metallic pigments and 
as such also for several other colors. For such a pur- 



114 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

pose they are used in very large quantities by the paint 
grinders, but are seldom bought as such and com- 
pounded by the consumer. 

BARYTES. 

71. a. Last but not least among the whites comes 
Barytes. Barytes in its native state is better known 
as heavy spar. This is ground, washed and is pre- 
pared for market according to the qualities it may 
possess. It is very heavy and in its natural state as 
clear as quartz. 

h. Its utility as a pigment is, to say the least, 
^'questionable." From its transparency one may infer 
that as an oil color it would cover very little better than 
the linseed oil used in spreading it and for water colors 
it is inferior and more costly than whiting. It is true 
that when it has been prepared to the condition when it 
takes the name of ''Blanc-fixe" it is highly prized by 
artists for use as an indestructible white in water colors 
• — but then it is not in the same shape as the barytes of 
commerce. In the latter shape barytes is an intimate 
friend of almost every color and every package of 
adulterated color or cheap ready mixed paint contains 
a good proportion of it. Its great clearness and trans- 
parency permits its use in almost any percentage that 
the greed of the manufacturer would suggest to him 
that it should be used or that the ability to unload it 
upon an unsuspecting public would permit. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 115 

THE REDS. 

y2. The red constitute a numerous class of pig- 
ments.* They are derived from the metallic, mineral, 
vegetable and animal kingdoms. They comprise a 
range of color tones varying from a red brown to the 
most brilliant scarlet reds bordering on the yellow. 

They will be reviewed according to their origin as 
derived from a metallic, mineral or vegetable kingdom. 

THE METALLIC REDS. 

y^. a. Red oxide is the most common form of 
the red pigments derived from iron. It enters into 
the make up of a number of various reds and in its 
pure state all by itself is most excellent. It is seldom 
sold under that name in a pure state nor is it neces- 
sary that it should when it is considered that 20 to 
25% of the pure color when added to any transparent 
base will cover solidly over any color black or white. 
It is so strong that unless it should be used for tinting 
it will bear reducing very much and still cover well. 
This addition of a cheaper material is legitimate under 
such a circumstance when it is known to the buyer and 
the cost of the paint reduced to him. 

b. Venetian red is supposedly a natural color, but 
that which is found upon the market today is certainly 
not of that character. It is made artificially and is 
much better for it, as then it can be made uniform in 
tone and texture which is not the case with any natural 
earth color. It is made upon a base of various kinds, 



116 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

the chief of which are barytes, whiting and gypsum to 
which red oxide of iron has been added. That made 
with a gypsum base is much the best and the quahties 
known under the name of EngHsh Venetian red are 
usually of that quality. It contains about 25% of iron 
oxide and that is enough to enable it to cover over any- 
thing. That made upon a gypsum base is very perma- 
nent and the change noticed in pure red oxide due to a 
tendency to become hydrated making it more yellowish, 
is reduced to the minimum. Thus made it is permanent. 

Turkey red, Pornpeian reds of some, with others of 
many names really are only brighter specimen having 
been made by the addition of some very bright toned 
oxide of iron on bases similar to Venetian red and 
they should all be classed under that head and name. 
Besides the names are used by some manufacturers to 
designate an entirely different class of pigments es- 
pecially that known as Turkey red which is a dark 
purplish red of a rich lakey tone. 

All the reds derived from red oxide of iron made 
on a gypsum base are permanent or so nearly so as to 
warrant their being so called. All are useful in oil, 
japan and water colors and are used by all painters, 
decorators and artists. 

c. The Indian reds derive their coloring matter from 
the peroxide of iron. At one time they used to be 
imported but now they are altogether of home manu- 
facture, being much more even in texture and coloring 
matter than those which were mined and prepared 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 117 

from the Asiatic ore. Indian reds have a range of 
tones of an entirely different order from that of the 
Venetian reds, being of a purphsh shade of red ranging 
from pale to dark. They are very useful in producing 
tints with white. The light toned Indian red produc- 
ing tints of rosy lilac while the dark produce tones of 
a violet lilac. They can be used in oil coach and water 
color work. They and their shades are permanent. 

These are all the red pigments derived from iron. 
It is true that there are a number of reds for sale 
in artists' colors especially which owe their coloring 
matter to either ferric oxide or the peroxide but not- 
withstanding their high sounding name they can all 
be classed as shades of either Venetian or Indian reds. 

d. The Tuscan reds are included with the metallic 
reds because their base is usually Indian red plus some 
of the whites. They owe their beautiful tones to a dye 
in which they are plunged and which they absorb. If 
they have absorbed much of it they are classed after- 
ward as deep Tuscan — if less as light Tuscan reds. It 
depends upon what the dyeing agent is, as to the beau- 
tiful tone being permanent or not. If made rich by a 
cheap aniline dye they will fade quickly — if from an 
alizarin one they will be permanent. They, like the 
Indian red, of whose nature they mainly partake, are 
useful for all sorts of painting in oil, japan or dis- 
temper but unlike the Indian red they do not produce 
very good tints with the whites. 



118 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

THE RED PIGMENTS DERIVED FROM LEAD. 

74. Red lead is the bi-oxide of that metal. It is 
made by roasting in retorts either the monoxide of lead 
or white lead or even the metal itself. They are kept 
in those revolving retorts until they acquire the. proper 
amount of oxidation. Red lead while permanent in its 
constituent parts, fades to a lighter tone of yellow red 
as it has a tendency to return to a monoxide — its more 
natural condition. It is one of the best pigments known 
for the priming of iron and all metals and for such a 
purpose is used in enormous quantities. 

75. a. Orange mineral is the ter-oxide of iron and 
is usually made from white lead which is off color 
from one* cause or another. It carries more oxygen in 
its composition than red lead and is of a richer tone, 
but it alsc is not permanent, and will loose its extra 
oxidation and return to the monoxide. Both are sub- 
ject to that foe of all lead salts except the sulphate 
— sulphur eted hydrogen gas. 

b. American vermillion is a pigment made from 
white lead and bichromate of potash. It is crystallic 
in form and should not be ground fine as that de- 
stroys the color. Since the advent of the vermillion 
reds it has lost ground until it is little known to the 
present generation of painters. 

ENGLISH VERMILLION OR QUICKSILVER VERMILLION. 

y6. a. English or quicksilver vermillion in the 
shape of native cinnabar which is a sulphuret of mer- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 119 

cury is found in all parts of the world where quick- 
silver is mined. Yet little if any ever finds its way to 
the market as such. All the quicksilver vermillion is 
artificially made. The process while easy to understand 
is nevertheless somewhat intricate and too lengthy to 
describe fully enough to be understood in the space 
available. It is first made into a black sulphuret by the 
addition of eight parts of sulphur to one of mercury 
which turns it into a black sulphuret which is its natural 
condition and afterwards it is sublimed when it is 
changed into the red which is an artificial condition for 
it, hence its tendency to darken as it seeks to return to 
its natural condition and it will quickly do so if left 
unprotected by varnish from atmospheric air. 

h. It is used for a great many purposes but not 
to the same extent today that it was previous to the 
introduction of the para reds and other imitation ver- 
million reds. None can compare with it for richness or 
brilliancy of tone — but for its fugitiveness it would 
be the king of the reds. There are two varieties of it, 
one called the pale which is of a bright scarlet tone 
and the deep which has a bluish tinge and is of the 
amaranth order. The pale has a much better body or 
opacity than the deep and cannot be replaced by any 
other red for striping as it will cover solid over black 
which no other scarlet red will do in one coat. It is 
used chiefly by the carriage trade in a self color or as a 
ground to be. glazed over with a carmine glaze. When 
well covered over by varnish and ground up in it, it 



120 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

will preserve its beautiful tone a long time before 
changing its color. 

THE IMITATION VERMILLIONS OR VERMILLION REDS. 

yy, a. Imitation vermillions, or vermillion reds as 
some know them, must not be confounded with Amer- 
ican vermillion as some erroneously call them. (See 
paragraph 75 b.) They are not chromates of lead, but 
are made some of them at least upon a white lead or a 
chromate of lead base upon which is thrown a dye 
from which the base absorbs the rich coloring matter 
giving them the rich tones which make them near rivals 
of quicksilver verrhillion; but there the resemblance 
ends. The dyes used in giving them their tones vary 
very much — some of the cheaper reds being colored 
with the cheapest of aniline dyes, which are fugitive 
while the better grades are colored with cosine and 
the best with alizarin. In the best of the vermilion 
reds such an excellence has been attained that they are 
much more permanent than quicksilver vermilion, if 
not quite so rich nor opaque. 

b. These reds are used for an infinity of purposes 
especially by coach painters, by agricultural implement 
manufacturers and all builders of machinery. They 
are as well adapted to water colors as they are to 
oil and japan work. They are known under an in- 
finity of proprietary names and come in all qualities as 
well as tones from scarlet to purple red. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 121 

THE RED LAKES. 

yS. a. Lakes usually are transparent colors thrown 
upon a transparent base. They are chiefly used as 
glazing colors by artists and coach painters. Some of 
the lakes are only semitransparent and are used as self 
colors or in tinting — only more coats are required to 
cover solidly with them. 

It depends upon the bases used in some degree and 
to a greater degree still to the coloring agent used in 
giving them their color as to whether the lakes are 
good or bad, permanent or fugitive. The range of tone 
for the red lakes is great varying from a scarlet and 
carmine down the scale to a reddish brown. Carmine 
itself is derived from coloring obtained from cochineal, 
an insect. It is too fugitive for work requiring per- 
manency and has become supplanted by alizarin made 
lakes which are much more permanent and which equal 
the ones derived from madder. 

THE YELLOWS. 

78. a. The family of yellows is about of equal im- 
portance and to the house painter of greater value than 
the reds. The various yellow pigments are derived 
from the metallic, mineral and vegetable kingdoms while 
some are derived from a combination of these. 

THE OCHRES. 

b. Ochres while not the brightest in tone of the 
yellow pigments are by long odds the most useful of 



122 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

that color. They are permanent and are used in their 
self color or combined with the whites to make a wide 
range of tints from an ivory or cream to a buff and 
combined with other colors to make an infinity of 
tints. They may be placed in two general classes : 
the argillaceous and the silicious according as to which 
predominates in their base. The first are chiefly de- 
rived from America while the second comes from 
Europe. The argillaceous ochres are best adapted to 
water color work while the silicious ochres are much 
the best for oil painting especially if exposed out of 
doors. All ochres are natural earth products with 
an earth base colored with hydrate oxide of iron. They 
vary very much in the quality of this iron hyd-oxide. 
A volume could be written upon them and their pecu- 
liarities without exhausting the subject. The general 
house painter should never use the American or the 
argillaceous ochres for solid self painting nor priming 
for reasons assigned under heading entitled "Blistering 
of paint" (paragraph 4 c, which see). The silicate 
ochres or the genuine French and English are the only 
safe ones to use for such a purpose. 

CHROME YELLOWS. 

79. a. Chrome yellow or the neutral chromate of 
lead is the only one of all the shades and tones 
classed under that name which is really entitled to it as 
all other shades varying from it are either alkaline on 
one side or acid upon the other; the canary and range 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 123 

of tones on the lemon order owing their lighter shade 
to sulphate of lead or rather to sulphuric acid which 
turns the lead to a sulphate and the range of the 
orange toned ones to lime or some other caustic alkali 
which turns them reddish. All shades owe their yellow 
tone to bichromate of potash which combines with the 
lead base to form the neutral and the other shades 
by the additions mentioned above. 

b. Chrome yellows are used in oil, coach or water 
color painting. It is well adapted to all kinds of paint- 
ing. The only limitation to their use is that under 
certain conditions they fade slightly or change their 
tone. Sulphureted hydrogen gases are as fatal to them 
as to white lead — that being a part of their make up. 
The sun's rays too have a tendency to cause them to 
change somewhat. But with all their faults there are 
no yellows so useful to the general painting trade. 
Should they disappear they would be sorely missed. 

The chrome yellows with their extended range of 
shades and tones comprising the whole gamut of yellow 
tones from the palest of canary to the deepest of orange 
have nearly driven out of the market a number of 
other yellows which were extensively used a few years 
ago such as orpiment, Naples yellow, etc. While fugi- 
tives they are less so than those they have replaced. 

80. A simple naming of the other yellows is all 
that will be necessary as their use has dwindled down 
to very small- quantities and that mainly among artists 
and decorators of the old school. The only one of any 



124 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

great intrinsic value is lemon or baryta yellozv. This 
is permanent and but for its greater cost and of its 
being more transparent than the lemon chrome yellow 
it would be used more than it is. 

Aureolin is a cobalt yellow very transparent even in 
water and difficult to handle. 

Gamboge, an old standard in oil colors, transparent 
and very fugitive. 

Indian yellozv is of animal origin and when well 
prepared is of value to the artist. 

Dutch pink. A yellow lake derived from grinding 
tree barks of various kinds — arid dyeing some base with 
them — of no great value even to the decorator in water 
colors. 

Naples yellozv. Not to be relied on, as it is fugitive : 
besides it is no good as a water color and some varieties 
of ochre mixed with whites will closely reproduce its 
tone. 

Vanadium yellozv — Kings yellozv besides being poison- 
ous is not permanent. 

Yellozv lake under which name most anything that 
is transparent and will do for glazing is sold — all being 
fugitive and of little value to the general painter. 

Under various fancy names the artists' catalogues 
are burdened with a host of proprietary named yellows 
belonging really to the ones already enumerated. 



Modem Painter's Cyclopedia 125 

THE BLUES. 

8i. a. The blues are derived from metallic, min- 
eral, vegetable and animal sources and combinations of 
these. Outside of ultramarine blue, no blues are found 
ni a natural state. 

h. Prussian blue in both the soluble and insoluble 
form are chemically about the same. The first is better 
known as Chinese and as soluble blue. Both are prus- 
siates of iron and are very useful in water or in oil 
colors. They will loose their color entirely by con- 
tact w^ith fresh lime and are not entirely permanent 
in sunlight. They are very strong in coloring matter. 

c. Ultramarine blue is the most remarkable blue on 
the list. As said before it is the only blue found in 
nature in a developed state, but is difficult of extraction 
from its matrix ''Lapis Lazuli," a semi-precious stone, 
so it was sold at an enormous price and royalty only 
could enjoy its use. It is produced artificially at a very 
low cost fully equal in quality or tone to the genuine. 
It is entirely permanent in sunlight or in contact 
with lime and has a range of tones from a greenish 
blue running to clear blue and on to a purplish cast of 
blue, the latter being much inferior in tone to the true 
blue. Ultramarine blue is made use of in all kinds of 
painting ground in oil, in japan or in water and all 
painters praise it highly. It is not nearly as strong in 
coloring matter as Prussia blue. 

d. Cobalt blue is a very pretty tone of light blue 
which when pure (which it is difficult to find) is de- 



126 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

rived from cobalt. It is universally made now by 
simply mixing enough zinc white to a clear blue ultra- 
marine to reduce it to the tone of the true cobalt blue 
so that practically it is only a tint of those two pig- 
ments. It is so easily made by admixture that few sup- 
ply stores carry it in stock. It is fully as permanent 
as its parents. 

e. Cerideum is another cobalt color which can be 
readily imitated by using the greenish blue ultramarine 
reduced with zinc white. 

/. Indigo blue is derived from a plant and its use in 
either water colors or oil is confined to a few artists. 
With so many better blues to choose from, its name as 
a pigment might as well be forgotten. The scene 
painters use it mostly. 

The above comprise all the useful blues. Yet the 
manufacturers of artists' colors persist in loading down 
their catalogues with a long list of names to confuse the 
public with the false idea that such are distinct pig- 
ments when they are not. 

THE GREENS. 

82. a. A wide range of greens are found in the 
market but they can be all classed in two groups, those 
whose tones incline towards the yellows and those which 
incline towards the blues. Green is a secondary and 
a compound color made from yellow and blue, so there 
is nothing very remarkable in the fact that its tones 
should incline one way or the other toward the parents. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 12? 

Greens are all made chemically, yet some dirty greenish 
black earths are found and classed as greens in some 
catalogues. 

b. Chrome greens as they are known in America 
are by far the most used of any of the greens. They 
are made by various combinations of Prussian blue 
and chrome yellow or their chemical equivalents and 
precipitated. Their range of tone is great from very 
light tender grass green nearly as bright as Paris green 
down to the deepest tones bordering on black. While 
not absolutely permanent, they are fairly so. Of course, 
lime will destroy the Prussian blue it contains. On the 
continent and especially in England chrome green is 
the named applied to the green oxide of chromium, a 
color little known or used here, but fairly permanent. 

c. Cobalt or ^inc green, as some call it, is derived 
from that metal. It is permanent but as it can be very 
nearly duplicated by using a good green ultramarine 
and zinc white one might just as well call it a tint of 
those pigments and prepare it from them when needed. 

d. Viridian is an invaluable green to the artist but 
its great cost will hardly permit its use to the general 
painter. Much of it is adulterated and it is better to 
buy it only under the label and name of well known 
makers of artists' colors. 

e. Paris or emerald green as it is known in Eng- 
land is a very poisonous arsenical product. It is very 
transparent and only fit to glaze with. It should be 
discarded entirely. 



128 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

f. Verdigris. Another poisonous pigment derived 
from copper. It was used in the past much more than 
it is today. It is said to possess anti-fouHng properties 
and is used by a few in the painting of boat bottoms. 
A few old time carriage painters still use it as a glaze 
but many general painters today die without having 
ever seen it and never miss it. 

Beside the above are to be found a large number 
of greens sold under proprietary names — all are various 
shades of chrome greens to which manufacturers have 
attached a trade mark name of their own. This creates 
confusion, leading people to think that such are some 
different production — besides there is the usual array 
of fancy named greens of the artists' color catalogue, 
none better if as good as the well known colors de- 
scribed above. 

THE BROWNS. 

83. a. The Browns are produced in abundance in 
the natural state by mother earth. There are also to 
be found of metallic origin. To facilitate the under- 
standing of some of the brown earth pigments, it will 
be well to note that the burning of them has a tendency 
to change their tone. Those containing ferric oxide 
will become redder than they were in the raw state. 
Those containing manganese will become darker in 
tone. Nearly all the brown earth pigments are valu- 
able for one purpose or another in water colors to pro- 
duce neutral tint and for the same purpose in oil paint- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 129 

jng or in japan for the coach painter. Some are very 
transparent, others only semi-transparent and such are 
of value to the grainer or for glazing to the carriage 
painter, artists and decorators. 

b. Umber, raw and burnt, vary very much in their 
composition. The best come from Asia Minor and are 
sold as Turkey umber. The raw is of a greenish brown 
and by burning is changed into a rich clear toned 
brown which in good umbers will be free of redness — 
they are semi-transparent. They are useful in all kinds 
of painting and in all mediums. 

c. Siennas, raw and burnt, like the umber vary 
greatly, so much so as to be hardly recognizable as 
being of the same nature — the poor, showing a muddy 
brownish red tone in the burnt, while the good has a 
rich subdued red which has a clear lakey transparency. 
For this reason the siennas are invaluable to the grainer 
and artists, who could not get along without it. It is 
used in oil, japan and water color painting. 

The raw owes its yellowish brown tone to its ferric 
oxide which is hydrated and which looses by burning, 
becoming red after that. 

d. Vandyke brown is a natural bituminous color 
found chiefly in bogs. It is known as Cassel earth, 
from the town in Germany near which it is produced. 
It is very transparent. It is useful as a glazing color in 
carriage painting and as a graining color to the grainer. 
It is not entirely permanent and for that reason, besides 



130 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

of its being a very poor dryer in linseed oil, it is not 
as extensively used now as it was. 

e. Asphaltum or mineral pitch, when well refined is 
useful as a glaze, it being very transparent. As it is 
liable to crack it is more useful in show card painting 
or for the painting of iron gratings, heat registers and 
such than for anything else. 

/. Metallic brozvns. Under that name a number 
of raw and calcined dark iron oxide paints are 
marketed, some becoming quite reddish by calcination, 
some being of that tone naturally. They have an ex- 
cellent body or opacity but that the tone of their 
color is not very attractive nor the tints made from 
them they would be used still more than they are. 
For freight car painting, bridge work, barns and the 
cheap outbuildings, roofs and all kinds of structural 
iron work they are used in immense quantities. 

Under the name ought to be included such old time 
colors as Spanish brown, etc., which designation is still 
used on the eastern seaboard while it has become ob- 
solete in the middle west. 

THE BLACKS. 

84. a. The blacks play an important role in every 
department of painting. It is used largely as a self 
color in the painting of iron work, steam and other 
ships and carriages, coaches, etc. While as a tinting 
color with whites and as an adjunct to other colors to 
4arken them they are invaluable as tint producers. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 131 

Most of the blacks are of carbonic composition pro- 
duced in a natural state in black lead; derived from 
fats as in lampblack or from the calcination of the 
bones of animals as ivory black and again the product 
of the calcination of woods as in Brunswick black. 

b. Lampblack is produced by the incomplete com- 
bustion of fatty substances. It is very strong in color- 
ing matter, but only moderately black in tone. It pro- 
duces clean toned grays with whites and is the best 
black to use for the making of tints with any other 
colors. It is used more than any of the other blacks 
by sign and house painters and by the carriage trade 
for priming coats. It has more opacity than any other 
black excepting gas black. 

c. Gas black or carbon black is also a black pro- 
duced by the incomplete combustion of natural gas. 
It is more intensely black than lampblack and used as 
a self color it is a close rival to the bone blacks for 
its jet black tone. As a tint producer it is very poor — 
the tints being rusty with none of the clearness of lamp- 
black. It is used to improve the tone of that pigment 
in sign writer's black and since the grinders have dis- 
covered a way of grinding it so that it will not liver 
with linseed oil, it is highly prized for solid black paint- 
ing of all kinds. It is also substituted for drop black 
in the cheaper colors ground in japan as it will bear 
adulterating lo to i and still be as strong as ivory 
black. 

d. Ivory, drop and coach blacks are all one and 



132 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

the same article under different labels it Is true but — 
the same. They are bone blacks which vary greatly in 
quality according as to the kind of bones, hard or 
soft, used in calcination and also in the carefulness in 
conducting of the process. All are useful in oil, japan or 
water colors. It is used in all kinds of painting, but 
the carriage trade consumes the most of it. 

e. Brunswick black is the charcoal produced by the 
combustion of twigs of trees and vines of various 
growths. It is very transparent and useful only in 
water colors. 

/. Black lead or plumbago is a natural carbon pro- 
duced by nature and it is mined in many parts of the 
world. As a pigment it is permanent and but for its 
indifferent tone, would be used more extensively than 
it is. It is chiefly used in oil for the painting of roofs, 
iron structures and out door painting. 

This ends the list of useful pigments. 

QUESTIONS ON COLORS. 

6i. What is said regarding colors in general? 
62. In how many main classes can pigments be 
divided? 

6^. How are pigments grouped for convenience? 

How many groups of colors? 

What is said concerning their characters? 

What is said of the whites generally? 

Give their derivation? 

What is said generally of white lead? 



64. 


a. 




b. 


65. 


a. 




b. 


66. 


a. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 133 

b. What are its peculiarities? 

c. What is the ''Dutch process" or corrosion? 

d. What is the "stack" system of corrosion? 

e. What is the "cyHnder" system of corrosion? 
/. Does one system make a better white lead 

than the other? 

67. What is "sublimed lead" ? 

68. Are any of the other salts of lead that are 
white useful as paints ? 

69. a. What is said of zinc white and its pecu- 

liarities ? 
b. How many processes are used for making zinc 
white? 

c. Describe the French process? 

d. Describe the American process ? 

e. Are French zinc whites made in France 

only? 

70. a. How are the earth whites divided ? 

b. What are the pigments with a cretaceous 

base? 

c. What are the pigments with an aluminous 

base? 

d. What are the silicious whites ? 

71. a. What is barytes? 
b. What are its uses? 

72. What is said of the reds generally? 

73. a. What is said of red oxide of iron? 

b. What is said of Venetian red, Pompeian 
red, Turkish red, etc. ? 



134 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

c. What is said regarding the Indian reds? 

d. What are Tuscan reds? 

74. What is red lead and what are its uses? 

75. a. What is orange mineral and what are its 

uses? 

h. What is American vermillion? 
y6. a. What is English or quicksilver vermillion? 

b. Where is it mostly used? 
yy. a. What are imitation or Vermillion reds ? 

b. What are their uses? 

78. What are lakes and what are their uses? 

79. a. What is said regarding the ochres ? 

b. What are chrome yellows ? 

c. What are their uses? 

80. What other yellows are they ? 

81. a. What is said of the blues in general? 

b. What is Prussian blue and what are its 

uses? 

c. What are ultramarine blues and what are 

their uses? 

d. How is cobalt blue made ? 

e. What is ceruleum and how is it imitated ? 
/. What is said of indigo blue ? 

S2. a. What is said of greens in general ? 

b. What are chrome greens ? 

c. What about cobalt or zinc greens ? 

d. What is said of viridian? 

e. What of Paris or Emerald green ? 

83. a. What is said generally of the browns? 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 135 

b. What about raw and burnt umbers ? 

c. What about raw and burnt sienna? 

d. What is Vandyke brown? 

84. a. What is said of the blacks generally ? 

b. What is lampblack and what are its uses? 

c. Where does gas black differ from lamp- 

black? 

d. What is Brunswick black? 

e. What is black lead or plumbago? 

COLOR HARMONY. 

85. Exterior and even more so interior painting no 
matter how well it may have been done nor how well 
planned, the decorations will have that undefinable 
"gingerbread" look to it as the painters would call it, 
if the coloring lacks in harmony, and even if well done 
and harmonious, if the draperies, furniture and car- 
pets are not in harmony with the painting, that will 
suffer in consequence of the latter inharmonious 
neighborhood. 

It is said that poets are born but not made; this to 
a certain extent can be said of a good colorist. It is a 
lamentable fact that 10% of men are at least partially 
color blind and incapable of judging the effects of true 
harmony. Some are totally color blind and can only 
recognize shades of black and white — the latter case 
is much more rare but railroad companies are forced 
to reject a large per cent of applicants for positions 
where the quick recognition of certain colors is a "sine 
qua non." 



136 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

But while poets are not made, persons who so de- 
sire may educate themselves into certainly not becom- 
ing good colorists but into a knowledge of the laws 
governing coloring and when they understand them 
fairly well they will be able to design color schemes 
which will not be an outrage upon the vision of persons 
of taste who are naturally able to recognize harmonious 
coloring. 

86. The subject of color harmony is too deep a 
topic to elucidate in even a desultory manner in the 
small space which can be devoted to it in a manual 
which is to treat of the whole subject-matter of paint 
and painting. All that can be done is to point the 
reader the way to a deeper study of harmony in books 
devoted to the subject of which many have appeared 
recently. 

To understand how to harmonize colors one must 
first of all become acquainted with a knowledge of 
what colors are. These are the result of decomposition 
of light which is white and which is the result of the 
perfect union of all colors. The rainbow with its beau- 
tiful coloring does on a large scale what a glass prism 
breaking the sun's rays does on a smaller scale; it 
decomposes the rays into the various colors of the 
spectrum. 

This decomposition of light shows in reality to the 
naked eye but three groups of three colors each, the 
last three but faintly, however, while the first three 
alone cannot be divided and therefore are called the 
primary colors; they are : Red, yellow and blue. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 137 

Sy. Secondary colors, also three in number, are 
formed by the mixture of any two of the primaries, 
thus: Red and yellow gives orange , red and blue 
gives purple and yellow and blue gives green. So 
orange, purple and green are the secondary colors. 

88. A third trio of colors is produced by the mix- 
ture of any two of the secondaries thus: Orange and 
green gives citrine; green and purple gives olive and 
orange and purple gives russet. So citrine, olive 
and russet constitute the three tertiary colors. 

89. The further combination of the tertiaries pro- 
duce an infinity of neutral grays with an addition of 
white or black. 

It must be born in mind that to produce a perfect 
harmony that the primaries or their equivalents in 
secondary or tertiary colors ought to be present to pro- 
duce a perfect harmony in about the same proportion 
as they exist in the spectrum and in which they unite 
to produce perfect light or white. 

90. But other harmonies can be produced by graded 
shades of the same color. Such an harmony is always 
pleasing to the eye and are always in good taste, so 
that a person can hardly err in giving satisfactory re- 
sults if he treats his decorative scheme in this way. 
This is called harmony by analogy. 

91. Harmony by contrast is much more difficult to 
master, as it is not only the coloring used in the decora- 
tion that must be taken into consideration but that of 
the furniture and draperies. Besides there are a great 



138 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

many things which must be well understood which en- 
hance or detract from the effects to be had from the 
use of any color. 

A good general rule to follow, is : that the comple- 
mentary colors (as are called the contrasting opposites) 
should be used in about the same proportion as the 
three primary colors themselves stand in the forma- 
tion of pure white. The primary colors stand in the 
proportion of three parts red, five parts yellow and 
eight parts blue in the make up of white light; then 
if the leading color used in the decoration is blue, it 
follows that red and yellow or the product of their 
combination, orange is the complementary color of blue 
and either that or the color value of these in others 
either secondary or tertiaries must be used in about 
the proportion needed of the primaries in making them 
would have stood to make white light. If yellow is the 
main color ground, blue and red or their tertiary equiv- 
alents or secondary, which is purple, must be the comple- 
mentary color to use. If the main color be red then 
green, which is the result of the union of blue and 
yellow, is the contrasting color of red. 

It does not follow however that a pleasing contrast 
will follow even by a proper use of opposites, unless 
these are of the right tones and shades and as these de- 
pend upon a number of qualifying circumstances which 
will have great influence in the making of a perfect 
blend, the laws of color relation to each other and of 
the effect of neutrals and of black and white must be 
well understood. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 139 

92. The secondary and tertiary colors are simply 
combinations of the primaries and their source must 
be carefully noted, so that the equivalent of the oppo- 
sites may be furnished as they are necessary to form 
a good harmony by contrast. 

93. The rules given are general and must be very 
incomplete even then as so much must be taken in con- 
sideration as influencing the results in the use of color 
that the reader must be referred to some good treatise 
on color harmony treating the subject-matter fully. 
Then only can one understand why it is that after 
having chosen proper complementary colors, that the 
contrast seems dull or out of harmony. The knowledge 
of the effect neutral tones have in heightening or de- 
pressing colors or why certain tones should be used 
instead of others of the same color will then be un- 
derstood and even a partially color blind decorator will 
not commit any unpardonable sins — in harmonizing 
colors. 

QUESTIONS ON COLOR HARMONY. 

85. What is said of color harm.ony? 

86. What are the primary colors? 

87. What are the secondary colors? 

88. What are the tertiary colors ? 

89. What are further combinations called ? 

90. What is harmony by analogy ? 

91. What is harmony by contrast? 



140 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

g2. What is the harmony of contrast of the second- 
ary and tertiaries? 

93. What is further said regarding harmony? 

COLOR MIXING. 

94. The mixing of tints requires some care and 
attention but is not as difficult to understand as many 
suppose it to be. If the rules given below are strictly 
followed, even a novice will come very near to the 
matching of sample tints — at least of such as are mostly 
used and with the tones of which he is familiar. 

There is a wide difference between mixing tints in 
oil or in water colors. In the former a person can 
see for himself just what the mixture is all through 
the stages of the mixing but in water colors the tints 
show so much darker than they will be when dry ^hat 
somewhat different rules must be adopted to mix 
the two. 

RULES FOR MIXING COLORS IN OIL. 

95. a. The base color is always the most impor- 
tant one. It may be any color and here is where some 
good judgment is at times required to determine what 
that is, when one has to choose it for himself in trying 
to match certain samples. Usually it is a white if the 
tint is at all light in tone. If it be a dark one, the 
mixer should be sufficiently well acquainted with colors 
to judge at a glance which must be used as having 
the prevailing importance in the make up of the tint 
and that is the base. 



Modern Painter's 'Cyclopedia 141 

b. This base should be well broken up in linseed 
oil but not nearly as thin as it should be for application 
with a brush. If it be white lead, the most usual base 
for all light tints, it is better to have it well broken up 
the day before as then all small lumps will be dis- 
solved and when it has been well stirred up, it will be 
uniform throughout — a very important requisite. 

c. The tinting pigments or colors which it will be 
necessary to add to the base for producing the tint 
should be pretty well thinned with linseed oil and tur- 
pentine half and half. It is of great importance that 
no lumps or specks remain undissolved in these and 
they should be thinned somewhat more than stated for 
that of the lead base. If necessary they should be 
strained through a fine meshed paint strainer. 

d. The pigment entering in the largest quantity in 
the make up of a tint aside of the base should now be 
mixed with it — not by pouring it in all at once and 
thus overshooting the mark, but very gradually and 
should be well stirred up to insure uniform incorpora- 
tion. It should not be added to the full extent needed 
for the tint, but just short of it. Proceed next to add 
in the other colors needed in the same manner as stated 
above. When all the pigments required have been well 
stirred up, if the mark has not been overshot, the re- 
sulting tint will be very near to the color wanted and 
by a further addition of this or that one, the tint will 
be brought up to just where it is wanted. If too much 
coloring pigment has been put in however it is easy to 



142 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

understand that it cannot be taken out. Then the 
only remedy is to add more base to counteract the too 
great quantity of color used and also of the rest of the 
tinting colors and this usually means loss of material 
where too much has been mixed. 

e. A list of principal tints is given further on. 
Many are so very closely related that but some who 
desire to make them, might be misled, they might as 
well have been left out. Another word — what one man 
understands as an apple green may be very different 
from what another's idea of what an apple green ought 
to be and so on all through the list. For this and other 
reasons the quantity of each is not given. The other 
reasons are that some colors of the same name bought 
of various manufacturers may be twice, thrice and 
even four or ten times stronger in coloring than others 
and a tint would be utterly ruined if quantities were 
given. The colors are named according to the im- 
portance they occupy in making the tints. The more 
important being named after the base and the least — 
last. 

96. Tints in water colors require about the same 
coloring pigments to produce any given tint as in oil 
and the same advice about not overdoing the addition 
of the pigments to the base is even more needed. The 
base for tints is usually whiting or some other earth 
white which has been properly thinned with glue water. 
But after colors also thinned with glue water have been 
added, as the tint appears much darker than it really 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 14^ 

is, it will be necessary to ''try" it. Dip a small piece 
of paper in it and place it in the sun or upon a stove 
and dry it. As soon as dry the true tone of the color 
will show up and any colors lacking can be added — 
gradually, well stirred up and tried by heat again, 
being always careful to have it just a trifle under than 
above the mark. This trying is tedious, it is true, 
but much less so than having to throw away the whole 
batch and commence the mixing all over again — and 
less expensive too. 

LIST OF TINTS. 

97. Acacia. Lampblack for base, colored with 
Indian red and tinged with Prussian blue. 

Acorn brown. See Chocolate as it is nearly the 
same but lightened up with white lead. 

Alderncy brozvn. Lampblack, orange chrome yel- 
low, French ochre, white lead. 

Alabaster. White lead for base, add enough me- 
dium chrome yellow to very slightly tinge it. 

Amaranth. Tuscan red and vermillion for base, add 
enough ultramarine blue to shade wanted. 

Anemone. Vermillion red for base, add Prussian 
blue to suit shade wanted and a trifle of black and white 
lead or zinc which is better. 

Antique bronze. Orange chrome yellow for base, 
add ivory black. Lampblack can be used but shade 
will not be so bright. 

Antzverp blue. Ultramarine blue for base, add 



144 Modern Painte/s Cyclopedia 

chrome green to shade wanted, lighten up with zinc 
white. 

Apple green. White lead for base, add light chrome 
green and orange chrome yellow. 

Apricot. Medium chrome yellow for base; Vene- 
tian red and carmine lake. If a light shade is wanted 
lighten it up with zinc white. 

Armenian red. Bright Venetian red for base, light- 
ened up with French ochre. 

Asiatic bronze. Raw umber for base; medium 
chrome yellow to which add sufficient white lead for 
shade wanted. 

Ash gray. White lead for base ; tinge with lamp- 
black ; add a bit of French ochre. 

Autumn leaf. White lead for base; to which add 
French ochre, orange chrome yellow, a trifle Venetian 
red to tinge it to tone of red desired. 

Azure blue. White lead for base, but zinc white is 
better; add Prussian blue to shade of it desired. 

Bay. Lampblack for base; add Venetian red and 
orange chrome yellow. 

Begonia. Vermillion red of a good scarlet shade for 
base ; tinge with Prussian blue and lampblack. 

Bismark brown. Burnt sienna for base; add burnt 
umber and orange chrome yellow ; lighten slightly with 
white lead to suit. 

Black slate. Lampblack for base; Prussian blue; 
slightly lighten it up with white lead. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 145 

Bordeaux blue. Lampblack for base ; Prussian blue, 
orange chrome yellow. 

Bottle green. Lampblack and Prussian blue for base ; 
lemon chrome yellow; to obtain this color at its best 
glaze it over with a yellow lake. 

Brass. White lead for base; add medium chrome 
yellow and French ochre to shade of it wanted. 

Bronze blue. Lampblack for base ; tinge with Prus- 
sian blue and slightly lighten with white lead. 

Bronze green. Extra dark chrome green for base; 
add lampblack. For a richer tone of it : medium chrome 
gieen for base, add ivory black and a trifle of raw 
umber. 

Bronze red. Vermillion red for base; add orange 
chrome yellow and a trifle of lampblack. 

Bronze ycllozv. Medium chrome yellow for base; 
raw umber, lighten up to suit with white lead. 

Brick color. Yellow ochre for base; add Venetian 
red to suit ; for very light shades add white lead in very 
small quantity. 

Brown stone. Tuscan red for base; add orange 
chrome yellow; lighten up to suit with white lead. 
Some shades of it require a bit of ivory black. 

Brozvns and Brown drabs — all shades. Venetian red 
for base; add French ochre and lampblack in various 
proportion according to shades of brown wanted. For 
the brown drabs add white lead to reduce the above 
brown tints. 



146 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Buttercup. White lead for base ; add lemon chrome 
yellow to suit shade wanted. 

Cafe au lait. Burnt umber for base ; add white lead, 
French ochre and Venetian red. 

Cambridge red. Vermillion for base; add Prussian 
blue to suit. 

Canary. Use chrome yellow of that name or lemon 
yellow for base, lightened up with zinc white. 

Carnation. English vermillion for base; add good 
madder lake or carmine. If wanted very light, add 
zinc white. 

Celestial blue. Prussian blue for base ; chrome green 
and zinc white. 

Cerulean blue. Zinc white for base ; add ultramarine 
blue of good tone to suit. 

Chamois. White lead for base; add French ochre, 
medium chrome yellow to suit, redden it with a little 
burnt sienna. 

Chamoline. White lead for base; add raw sienna, 
lemon chrome yellow to suit. 

Chartreuse. Medium chrome yellow for base; add 
some medium chrome green. 

Chestnut. Venetian red for base; add medium 
chrome yellow, French ochre and lampblack to suit. 

Chocolate. Burnt umber for base ; add rich crimson 
vermillion red or lake. Another which is cheaper but 
not so rich : French ochre for base ; add lampblack 
^'^ Venetian red to suit. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 147 

Cinnamon. White lead for base ; add burnt sienna, 
French ochre, medium chrome yellow. 

Crimson. Deep English vermillion or any of the 
crimson shades of vermillion reds. If desired very rich, 
add some of the crimson lakes or glaze with them. 

Claret. Madder lake and ultramarine blue for base, 
to which add English vermillion and ivory black. 

Clay bank. French ochre for base ; add orange chrome 
yellow, lighten up with white lead to shade desired. 

Clay drab. White lead for base; medium chrome 
yellow, raw and burnt umber. 

Cobalt blue. This is a solid blue. Good ultrama- 
rine blue ; lighten up to suit with zinc white. 

Cocoanut brown. Burnt umber for base; lightened 
up with white lead. 

Colonial yellow. White lead for base ; add medium 
chrome yellow, tinge with a trifle of orange chrome 
yellow. 

Copper. Medium chrome yellow ; tinged with burnt 
sienna. 

Coral pink. Vermillion for base ; white lead, medium 
chrome yellow. 

Cotrine. White lead for base; add orange chrome 
yellow and lampblack. 

Cream color and all the buffs. White lead for base ; 
add some good French or Oxford ochre to make the 
shade of them wanted. More or less of the ochre added 
to the base will make an affinity of shades of that 
order. 



148 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Dove color. White lead for base; add ultramarine 
blue, Indian red and lampblack. 

Dregs of wine. Dark Tuscan red for base ; add white 
lead and a trifle of zinc white. 

Ecru. White lead for base ; add French ochre, burnt 
sienna, lampblack. The tint has a wide range of tones. 

Electric blue. Ultramarine blue for base ; add white 
lead and raw sienna. 

Emerald. Paris green as it is, or better an imita- 
tion of it, in very light chrome green. 

Egyptian green. White lead for base ; add raw um- 
ber, lemon chrome yellow, Prussian blue to suit. 

Fawn. White lead for base; add medium chrome 
yellow, Venetian red, burnt umber. 

Flesh color. White lead for base; add medium 
chrome yellow, French ochre and Venetian red. 

Fog blue. Burnt sienna for base ; add Prussian blue, 
then lighten up with white lead to suit. 

French blue. Ultramarine blue for base ; lighten up 
with zinc white to shade wanted and tinge it slightly 
with light chrome green. 

French gray. White lead for base; add ivory black 
with a faint tinge of ultramarine blue and madder lake 
or carmine. 

French red. Indian red for base; add English pale 
Vermillion to brighten it, then glaze with madder red or 
carmine. 

Gazelle. French ochre for base; add Tuscan red, 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 149 

Venetian red, lampblack, lighten up to suit with white 
lead. 

Geranium. Vermillion red for base ; add Indian red 
and a trifle of ivory black. 

Gobelin blue. Ivory black for base ; add white lead, 
Prussian blue and a trifle of medium chrome green. 

Gold. White lead for base ; add medium chrome yel- 
low, some good bright French ochre and a very little 
English Vermillion or vermillion red of good tone. 

Golden brown. French ochre for base; add orange 
chrome yellow, lampblack . Lighten up with white lead 
to suit. 

Grass green. Extra light chrome green just as it 
comes from the can or lighten up the light chrome green 
with canary chrome yellow. 

Gray green. White lead for base; add ultramarine 
blue, lemon chrome yellow, lampblack. 

Granite blue. White lead for base ; lampblack, Prus- 
sian blue. 

Green stone. White lead for base; add medium 
chrome green, raw umber, and French ochre. 

Gray stone. White lead for base; add lampblack, 
Prussian blue, Venetian red. 

Gray drabs — all shades of them. White lead for 
base ; add lamp or drop black with a little burnt umber 
in various proportions according to the depth and shade 
of drab wanted. 

Grays, all shades. White lead for base ; lampblack in 
various proportions to suit shade wanted. 



150 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Hay color. White lead for base ; add orange chrome 
yellow, light chrome green, Indian red. 

Heliotrope, Zinc white for base; add bright Ven- 
etian red and ultramarine blue. 

Indian pink. White lead for base; add Indian red. 

Indian brown. Indian red for base; add lampblack, 
French ochre. 

Iron gray. Lampblack for base ; add white lead and 
a trifle of orange chrome yellow. 

Ivy green. French ochre for base; add lampblack, 
Prussian blue. 

Jasper. Lampblack for base; add medium chrome 
yellow, light Indian red. 

Jonquil. White lead for base; add medium chrome 
yellow to which should be added a tinge of red with 
English pale vermillion. 

Lavender. White lead for base; add ivory black, 
ultramarine blue, tinge with carmine or madder lake. 

Leaf buds. White lead for base ; add orange chrome 
yellow, light chrome green. 

Lead color. See Grays, 

Leather, French ochre for base ; add burnt umber. 
If a warm tone is wanted add Venetian red. 

Lemon. Use the chrome yellow of that name. 

Lilac. White lead for base ; add dark Indian red to 
suit. 

London smoke. Yellow ochre for base; add ultra- 
marine blue, lampblack, lighten up to suit with white 
lead. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 151 

Magenta. Vermillion for base; add carmine or 
madder lake with a tinge of ultramarine blue. 

Manila or deck paint. White lead for base; add 
French ochre, medium chrome yellow. 

Marigold. Medium chrome yellow for base; add 
white lead, orange chrome yellow. 

Maroon. Carmine or madder lake for base ; add 
ivory black and a bit of orange chrome yellow. A 
cheaper way : Tuscan red for base ; add orange chrome 
yellow and some ivory black. 

Mastic. White lead base; add French ochre, Ven- 
etian red and a trifle of lampblack. 

Mexican red. Bright Venetian red for base; add 
red lead. 

Mignonette. Medium chrome green for base; add 
Prussian blue, medium chrome yellow, lampblack. 

Mascot. Lampblack for base; add Prussian blue to 
suit. 

Mauve. Ultramarine blue for base ; add zinc white, 
tint with madder lake. 

Methyl blue. Ultramarine for base; add medium 
chrome green and a tinge of red. 

Moorish red. Vermillion red for base; add madder 
lake. 

Mouse color. White lead for base; add lampblack, 
a tinge of Venetian red and burnt umber. 

Moss rose. Lemon chrome yellow for base; add 
medium chrome green; lighten up with white lead to 
suit. 



152 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Mountain blue. White lead for base; add madder 
lake, ultramarine blue. 

Navy blue. Ultramarine blue for base; add ivory 
black. 

Neutral blue. Prussian blue for base ; add raw um- 
ber and lighten up with white lead to suit. 

Nile blue. White lead for base; add Prussian blue 
with a trifle of medium chrome green. 

Normandy blue. Medium chrome green; ultrama- 
rine blue, a trifle of white lead. 

Nut brown. Lampblack for base ; add Venetian red, 
medium chrome yellow, French ochre. 

Oak color. Light and dark shades of it. White lead 
for base ; add French ochre and a small quantity of 
Venetian red; vary quantities to suit light or dark 
shades. 

Old gold. White lead for base ; add medium chrome 
yellow, French ochre and a little burnt umber. 

Olive. Lemon chrome yellow for base; add about 
equal parts of Prussian blue and lampblack. Some 
shades of olive can be made by substituting French 
ochre for lemon chrome yellow, when, of course, the 
tone will not be so bright. A trifle of lemon chrome 
added to the ochre will improve it and still make an- 
other variety of it. 

Olive brown. Raw umber for base; add lemon 
chrome yellow. Vary the quantity to suit depth of tone 
wanted. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 153 

Opal gray. White lead for base ; add burnt sienna, 
ultramarine blue. 

Oriental blue. White lead for base; add Prussian 
blue, lemon chrome yellow. 

Oriental green. Raw umber for base; add lemon 
chrome yellow to suit. 

Orange, Orange chrome yellow as it comes from 
the can. 

Orange brown. Orange chrome yellow for base ; add 
raw sienna, a trifle of burnt umber. 

Peach blossom. White lead for base; add pale 
Indian red to suit. A tinge of madder lake will enrich 
it. 

Pearl. White lead for base ; add ivory black and a 
trifle of ultramarine blue and carmine lake. This is 
a very light shade just off the white. It must not be 
overdone. 

Pea green. White lead for base; add medium 
chrome green to suit. 

Peacock blue. Ultramarine blue for base; add extra 
light chrome green and zinc white to suit. 

Persian orange. Orange chrome yellow for base; 
add French ochre, white lead. 

Pistache. Ivory black for base; add French ochre, 
medium chrome green. 

Pink. Zinc white for base ; add madder lake or car- 
mine or the crimson shades of vermillion. 

Pompeian red. Vermillion red base; add orange 
chrome yellow, a bit of ivory black. 



154 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Pompeian blue. White lead tfese; add ultramarine 
blue, Vermillion red, French ochre. 

Plum color. White le?ad for base; add Indian red, 
ultramarine blue. 

Portland stone, French ochre for base; add raw 
umber ; lighten up to suit with white lead. 

Primrose. White lead for base ; add lemon or med- 
ium yellow chrome, according to the shade wanted. 

Purple. White lead for base; add dark Indian red 
and a trifle of light Indian red to suit. 

Purple brown. Dark Indian red for base ; add ultra- 
marine blue, a trifle of lampblack and white lead to 
lighten up to suit. 

Quaker green. White lead for base; add French 
ochre, lampblack and burnt sienna. 

Roan. Lampblack for base ; add Venetian red, Prus- 
sian blue ; lighten it up to suit with white lead. 

Robin's egg blue. White lead for base ; add ultrama- 
rine until the shade is a deep blue, then add some pale 
chrome green to suit tone desired of it. 

Russet. White lead for base; add orange chrome 
yelloj^, a trifle of lampblack and Prussian blue. 

Russian gray. White lead for base; add ultrama- 
rine blue, pale Indian red and lampblack. 

Sage green. White lead for base; add medium 
chrome green until the tint is nearly but not quite a pea 
green, then add lampblack to tinge it the sage tint. 

Salmon. White lead for base; add French ochre, 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 155 

burnt sienna, with a trifle of English vermilHon or a 
good vermilhon red. 

Sapphire blue. Zinc white for base ; add ultramarine 
blue. 

Sap green. White lead for base ; add medium chrome 
yellow, lampblack. 

Sea green. White lead base ; add Prussian blue, raw 
sienna. 

Seal brown. Burnt umber for base ; add good French 
ochre and a trifle of white lead. 

Scarlet. Pale English vermillion or any of the scar- 
let toned vermillion reds. 

Shrimp pink. White lead base; add Venetian red, 
burnt sienna and a trifle of vermillion. 

Sky blue. White lead for base ; add Prussian blue to 
suit. 

Slate. White lead for base; add raw umber, ultra- 
marine blue, lampblack. 

Spruce yellozv. French ochre for base; add Ven- 
etian red ; lighten up with white lead to suit. 

Snuff color. French ochre for base; add burnt um- 
ber and a bit of Venetian red. 

Strazv color. Medium chrome yellow for base ; add 
French ochre; a bit of Venetian red; lighten up with 
white lead. 

Stone color and yellow drabs. White lead for base ; 
add French ochre ; tinge up with medium chrome yellow 
and burnt umber. By varying quantities all shades of 
yellow drab can be made. 



156 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Tan. White lead for base; add burnt sienna and a 
trifle of lampblack. 

Tally-Ho. White lead for base; add French ochre, 
Venetian red, dark chrome green with a bit of ivory 
black. 

Terra-cotta. French ochre for base; add Venetian 
red and white lead. Some shades of it require the 
addition of Indian red. If some rich shades are wanted 
use orange chrome yellow in place of French ochre; 
add Venetian red and a trifle of burnt umber to suit. 

Turquoise blue. White lead for base, or better zinc 
white and cobalt blue ; Paris green or pale chrome 
green. 

Vienna brown. Burnt umber for base; add Ven- 
etian red, French ochre, and lighten with white lead to 
suit. 

Violet. White lead for base ; add pale Indian red, a 
trifle of dark Indian red. 

Willow green. White lead for base; add sufficient 
medium chrome yellow to make a pretty deep shade; 
then add a small quantity of raw umber and ivory black. 

Wine color, English vermillion or scarlet toned 
Vermillion red for base; add madder lake or carmine, 
ultramarine blue, lampblack. 

Another way : Dark Tuscan red of good quality to 
which add a trifle of ivory black. 

Water green. White lead for base ; add raw sienna, 
dark chrome green. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 157 

Yellow bronze. Lemon or medium chrome yellow 
for base ; add French ochre and a trifle of burnt umber. 

QUESTIONS ON COLOR MIXING. 

94. What is said about color mixing in general ? 

95. a. What is a base for a tint ? 

b. How must the base be prepared? 

c. How are the tinting colors prepared ? 

d. How must one proceed to mix the tinting 

colors with the base ? 

e. What advice is given in this section? 

96. How are tints in water colors made ? 

97. Pupils should familiarize themselves with the 
tints given and refer to them when they want to know 
how to make them. 

COLOR TESTING. 

98. Under the heading of "Colors," paragraph 71 b, 
the reader will have noticed probably what has been 
said concerning the chief role played by barytes in the 
paint world. He may have noticed also w^hat is said in 
paragraphs 5 to 7 inclusive, under the heading of 
"Adulterations in relation to the scale test as indicating 
the relative strength of coloring matter contained in 
pigments." As a fairly full explanation of the test is 
there given, it may be well to read that portion over 
again as it is not necessary to repeat it here, and it 
plays a very important part in testing the value of 
many pigments. 



158 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

There is no better test for nearly all manufactured 
colors having a recognized chemical formula and be- 
sides it nearly always indicates (indirectly) the quality 
of tone in the tints made while making the test; but 
after all this test does not show everything connected 
with the testing of colors nor is it applicable to a large 
number of valuable pigments, therefore the subject mat- 
ter of this heading will be considered from the several 
points which have a bearing upon enhancing or depreci- 
ating the value of pigments. 

The following are points which are recognized uni- 
versally as having something to do in determining 
values; some for one class of pigments, others for an- 
other class and some are applicable to all : 

1. Purity of material. 

2. Purity of tone, brilliancy, richness. 

3. Fineness of grinding and preparation. 

4. Spreading capacity. 

5. Its body; applying only to opaque or semi- 
opaque pigments. 

6. Its staining power or tinting strength with white 
lead. 

7. The quality of purity of their tones with whites. 

8. If a paste color the consistency of the paste. 

PURITY OF PIGMENTS. 

99. All chemically prepared pigments which have a 
well known formula which is recognized among color 
men as such, have that for a standard of purity. White 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 159 

lead, zinc white, Prussian blue, the chrome yellows, 
greens, etc., belong to this class. The word pure here 
means only this : that they contain no adulteration, but 
it does not take into consideration, the quality of tone, 
fineness of grinding, brilliancy, etc., each of which is 
an important factor in determining the relative value of 
pigments. The scale test is very valuable in determin- 
ing the strength of this class of pigments and usually 
this is the most important point in the judging of val- 
ues. A color may be very pure and still be very poor, 
but the above statement applies with more force to the 
earth or natural pigments than to those that are chem- 
ically prepared. Yet it is sometimes necessary to have 
recourse to all the points named in the preceeding para- 
graph to fully determine the true value of a pigment. 

PURITY OF TONE OF PIGMENTS. 

100. This test is applicable to all classes of pig- 
ments and the chemically prepared colors should have 
it applied as well as the others for a Prussian blue or a 
chrome yellow may have such a poor tone as to be val- 
ueless and still be chemically pure and for the natural 
or earth pigments this test is of the greatest importance 
and leads all others. In paragraphs 3 to 8, good advice 
is given in relation to chosing some good standard col- 
ors to judge others by. The reader will do well to 
keep a supply of all such as he is likely to need in testing 
other colors by and comparing their tones. Brilliancy 
is as desirable as purity of tone and usually the two are 



160 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

inseparable for it is inconceivable of a pigment of a 
good pure tone that it has not brilliancy also, so that 
there is no need of a separate test for it. Richness is 
also an inherent quality belonging to purity of tone and 
it must be inferred as it cannot be separated from it. 

FINENESS OF GRINDING. 

There are several methods of determining the fine- 
ness of grinding of pigments. The fineness of grinding 
of any color but those of crystallic formation is very 
important as it gives them more spreading power, 
makes them more absorbent of linseed oil, which in out- 
side painting means more durability and as finely 
ground pigments can be spread more smoothly, it also 
means additional beauty. For the earth colors such as 
the siennas, the umbers, Vandyke brown, etc., especially 
if used in their self tones, as they are in graining or in 
glazing — fineness of grinding is of much importance 
as it will prevent speckiness, a fault for which the repu- 
tation of a carriage painter or grainer using them may 
suffer much on account of the poor quality of work 
turned out with such. The following methods may be 
used in judging the fineness of grinding: 

The simplest and easiest of all is to place a little bit 
of the pigment upon a piece of clean glass and to re- 
duce it with oil until very thin, then to spread it out 
upon the glass very thinly, then looking through the 
glass holding it so the light will go through it, it will 
show any speck or imperfect grinding. Another way 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 161 

is to thin out the pigment with turpentine and paint it 
out thinly upon the glass and doing the same with some 
of the standard which is known to be very finely ground 
and which is thinned with the same quantity of thinner, 
and which should be painted alongside of the color be- 
ing tested. When dry the painting will clearly indicate 
the relative fineness of the two samples. 

The following method is probably as good as any or 
better rather than any, but it requires a little more time 
to make the test: Weigh out equal parts each of the 
colors being tested, after having first taken the precau- 
tion to place each upon a piece of blotting paper to re- 
move the oil as one might have more than the other, 
then after weighing place each sample in a graduated 
test tube, putting in each tube the same quantity of tur- 
pentine to thin them, after which shake them up thor- 
oughly. It will be easy to see which precipitates first, 
as the heaviest will go to the bottom first always and 
the finest or lightest will be held in suspension the 
longest. But even this test would become worthless for 
colors which have been adulterated with a very fine 
atomed adulterant or for white lead which contains 
sublimed lead as that is much finer than Dutch process 
lead. In either case, however, if the scale test has been 
used, it will have given away the pigment at fault and 
one can give a pretty good guess as to what the 
adulterant may be. 



162 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

SPREADING POWER OR COVERING POWER. 

1 02. The spreading power or covering power of 
pigments are not controvertible terms and they are not 
identical, as between zinc and white lead for instance, 
and one of great opacity may not have much spreading 
power. But in pigments which are being tested with 
another of the same name and composition to all in- 
tents and purposes, and for comparison it may be 
assumed that the two are identical and that spreading is 
due to the opacity of the pigment, and that they should 
go hand in hand in helping to determine the value of 
the samples tested. It would not be fair nor conclusive 
to apply this test to any of the transparent or even the 
semitransparent pigments, but is applicable only to 
white lead and other opaque pigments. 

THE BODY. 

103. The body of a pigment lays in its opaqueness 
or its capacity to hide from view, the coats of paint 
over which their covering properties are being tested. 
It is nearly related to its spreading so that what was 
said in the preceding paragraph applies to that also. 
A pigment having a better body than that of another 
of the same name, can be spread further, to cover as 
well as one lacking in body, each hiding the surface 
over which they are applied as well in each case. For 
instance if to cover over a certain number of square feet 
of surface painted black requires one pound of white 
lead to do as well as one and a half pound of white 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 163 

lead of another sample did, then the first is worth 50% 
the most and has 50% more body and the spread helps 
to determine its body. 

TINTING OR STAINING STRENGTH. 

104. This is determined by the "scale test" which 
has been explained under the heading "Adulteration" 
and the reader is referred to paragraphs 5 to 7. This 
test is an infallible one in detecting the lack of color- 
ing matter in any pigment. 

THE PERMANENCY OF PIGMENTS. 

105. This is a very important test but it takes a very 
long time to make it. There is nothing else to do but 
to wait for results after having painted over two or 
more pigments being tested for permanency upon a 
board side by side, the board being the same and the 
ground coats being alike, and the exposure the same 
for each. Each pigment has a permanency of its own 
and therefore the term is only a relative one. White 
lead should not be tested by the permanency belonging 
to lampblack for instance, but by that of samples of 
other white lead and time will decide which of two or 
more white leads is the most permanent. Under the 
heading of "Colors" is given their peculiarities and in 
the leading ones especially a list of conditions under 
which they should not be applied and which would 
shorten their permanency. 



J 64 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

QUESTIONS TO COLOR TESTING. 

98. What is said generally of color testing ? 

99. What about the purity of pigments ? 

100. What can you say regarding the purity of 
tone ? 

10 1. How can the fineness of grinding be detected? 
test is an infallible one in detecting the lack of color- 
ering power of pigments and to what class of pigments 
is the test applicable? 

103. What is the body of a pigment? 

104. How do you test for the amount of coloring 
matter contained in pigments? 

105. How is the permanency of pigments tested ? 

ESTIMATING. 

106. There is nothing pertaining to the business of 
painting or decorating which is more puzzling to the 
beginner and if you please, to many veterans than ''how 
to proceed in making an estimate upon an architect's 
specifications or even for the repainting of an old build- 
ing where all the work is in full sight, just as it is." It 
requires a minute understanding of everything to be 
done and of the time that will be required to do it, be- 
sides making a liberal allowance for time lost or 
wasted on account of delays occasioned by the thou' 
sand and one causes which the experienced contractor 
alone knows of. 

Some men go to work with paper and pencil, reduce 
every board, molding, etc., into inches and square feet, 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 165 

counting parts requiring more time than plain square 
surfaces 50, 100 or even 200 per cent more than that 
for the extra trouble. Others again will simply average 
up the number of plain, molded and transomed doors 
and their casings; so many windows of various sizes 
and their casings; base boards, wainscoting, etc. For 
the outside they square it up adding a fifth for under- 
side of weather boarding, etc. But it seems to be an 
intuition with some men to know just how much to 
charge for each job by just "looking it over," without 
ever so much as taking the pencil out of the vest pocket. 
Nor will their figures usually vary as much as those of 
the men who toil and sweat over long rows of additions 
made necessary by the carefully itemized account they 
have made of every board in the house. 

How it is possible for people who figure a job so 
closely to vary so much in their estimates is a puzzle for 
the Philadelphia lawyer to solve. The opening up of 
the bids is such a joke that one may look out for any 
kind of a surprise in the figures named for doing the 
painting. The results would indicate that reckless 
guessing was more prevalent than sober judgment in 
naming the figures as these show variations of from 10 
to 150 per cent sometimes. Variations of from 10 to 
20% are to be expected — but the others? 

Common sense and a thorough knowledge of the 
"How to bid" should be the motto of the contractor. 
They generally go hand in hand, but this knowledge is 
gained only by cool, careful comparisons made as to 



166 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

what former jobs of about the same amount of surface 
have cost and in time a man is able to name a price off 
hands for nearly all kinds and sizes of ordinary build- 
ings by making a proper allowance for the safe side. 
But the novice who has no such retrospective experience 
to lean upon and also the men who do not accumulate 
experience from past transactions, need to square up 
everything to be able to bid intelligently. 

The National Master Painters' Association some 
years ago adopted a system of measurement which, 
while it was not to be binding upon its members, was 
to be used as a guide in the making of estimates, but 
more especially to establish a price for all kinds of 
painting which had to be established by law, where the 
settlement for the painting of a job had to be done 
through litigation, but it did not work. The associ- 
ation had it made up into pamphlet form and placed it 
on sale with its secretary and while it was well ad- 
vertised it took several years before it was sold and 
given away together. No new edition will ever be 
made of it. 

The Pittsburg local association of Master Painters 
recognizing the need of a guide in making estimates 
adopted a price list which is given below. This list is 
a fairer one than that adopted by the national associa- 
tion, but it is not binding upon the members either. 
It serves merely as a guide and members can cut it in 
two if they like. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 167 

THE PITTSBURG PRICE LIST. 
SQUARE MEASURE. 

107. Plain weatherboarding, close fencing, ledge 
doors, partitions, paling fences, etc., all common colors, 
viz : White, light yellow, slate, pearl, light buff, light 

drab or cream color, per yard for each coat 8c 

Each coat of varnish, per yard loc 

PANEL WORK. 

Flush panel work, panel doors, recesses, etc. 

All the above colors, for each coat, per yard loc 

The same in two colors, per yard 12c 

The same in three colors, per yard 14c 

Striping after other work is finished, lineal meas- 
ure, per foot ic 

For expensive or unused colors, additional, per yard ic 

For each coat of varnish, per yard ^ 12c 

For each coat of shellac, per yard » 12c 

BRICK WORK. 

First coat, per yard 15c 

Second coat, per yard 12c 

Third coat, per yard loc 

Pencilling, per yard 15c 

Mastic on cement, per yard 20c 

Addition coats on that same as brick. 

INSIDE WALL PAINTING. 

First coat, per yard 12c 



168 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Second coat, per yard loc 

Third coat, per yard 8c 

STOPPING AND CLEANING. 

Ordinary puttying, charge price of first coat for the 
several kinds of work. Puttying longitudinal joints in 
ceilings, siding, floors, etc., to be charged two to four 
times the price of first coat for the several kinds of 
work at the discretion of the measurer. 

SURFACING, STAINING AND VARNISHING. 

Each coat of surfacing, per yard loc 

Each coat of stain, per yard 8c 

Each coat of varnish, per yard I2c 

LINEAL MEASURE. 

Pillasters, architraves, frames, jambs, base mold- 
ings, etc. 

Per ft. Varnish 

Girth I to 4 inch, each coat, ^c J4c 

Girth 4 to 6 inch, each coat }ic ic 

Girth 6 to 8 inch, each coat ic ij^c 

Girth 8 to 10 inch, each coat i>^c i>^c 

Girth 10 to 12 inch, each coat i>^c ij4c 

Girth 12 to 14 inch, each coat i^c 2c 

Girth 14 to 16 inch, each coat 2C 2^c 

Girth 16 to 18 inch, each coat 2>^c 2>^c 

Girth 18 to 20 inch, each coat 2><c 2^c 

Girth 20 to 22 inch, each coat 2^c 3c 

Girth 22 to 24 inch, each coat 3c 3j4c 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 169 

Larger dimensions taken in square measure. 

Column mantle as above. 

Panel jambs, door casings, etc., to be measured by 
the above rule. 

Plain rosettes — add one foot to the length. 

Carved rosettes — add two feet to the length. 

Other carved or ornamental work at the discretion 
of the measurer. 

MODE OF MEASURING. 

Begin at wall, press line in all quirks to bead at edge 
of jamb casing for girth. For jambs, take inner sash 
rabbet to corner bead, double the height and measure 
between jambs for length. 

STRING BOARDS^ ETC. 

Plain, each coat, per foot 2c 

Bracketed, each coat, per foot 3c 

Carved, each coat, per foot 4c 

Staff heads, each coat, per foot j4c 

Edge of shelves, each coat, per foot J^c 

CORNICES AND COLUMNS, PLAIN. 

Girth I to 2 feet, each coat 3c 

Girth 2 to 3 feet, each coat 4c 

Girth 3 to 4 feet, each coat 5c 

Girth 4 to 5 feet, each coat 6c 

Plain caps on columns — add to length two feet. 

Ornamental caps on columns — add to length four 
feet. 



170 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

CORNICES WITH BRACKETS. 

Girth I to 2 feet, each coat » . . „ 4c 

Girth 2 to 3 feet, each coat 6c 

Girth 3 to 4 feet, each coat 8c 

Girth 4 to 5 feet, each coat loc 

Girth 5 to 6 feet, each coat . 12c 

Larger dimensions in proportion. 

Dential cornices same price as brackets. 

MODE OF MEASURING. 

For girth begin at the top, press line into all quirks 
and over each member at bottom and to the length add 
one-half the medium girth of the brackets multiplied by 
their number. 

PRIMING OR TRACING AND GLAZING SASH. 

Priming or New Old Glazing 

Tracing Glazing & Glass S.S. 

8 to 10x12 to 14 i>^c 5c $0.20 S. S. 

8 to 12x16 or 18 ij^c 8c .35 S. S. 

8 to 14x24 2c IOC .40 S. S. 

8 to 18x24 3c 14c .50 S. S. 

8 to 24x30 5c i8c i.oo D.S. 

8 to 26x36 6c 20c 1 .30 D. S. 

8 to 30x36 8c 25c 1.65 D. S, 

8 to 36x40 IOC 30c 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 171 

8 to 40x44 I2C 35c 

8 to 40x50 14c 40c 

8 to 40x56 i6c 50c 

8 to 50x60 i8c 60c 

8 to 50x70 20c 75c 

These prices do not apply when called out to glaze 
one or two lights. 

For back puttying add one-quarter and for bedding 
add one-half to above rates. 

In new glazing cost of glass is not included. All 
breakage at the risk of owners, if glass is furnished 
by them. To all bills of glass furnished by the trade, 
20 per cent will be charged additional. 

PLATE GLASS. 

Sizes same as table above at same prices. Sizes 
above up to 90 square feet 5 per cent on net cost de- 
livered; 90 to 108 square feet 8 per cent; 108 square 
feet and upward 10 per cent. 

Removing old glass same as above. The owner to 
pay cost of taking up large glass above first floor. 

Unless otherwise provided for the glazier puts glass 
in at his own risk of breakage, but cutting will be 
at owner's risk. 

SANDING. 

First coat of sand equal to two coats of paint in 
addition to paint coat. 



172 ' Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Second coat of sand equal to three coats of paint in 
addition to paint coat. 

GRAINING SQUARE MEASURE. 

Plain Oak, per yard $0.40 

Plain Walnut or Ash, per yard 70 

Plain Satinwood or Maple, per yard 70 

Plain Mahogany or Cherry, per yard 70 

Shaded Oak, per yard i.oo 

Pencilled Oak or Ash, per yard i.oo 

Pencilled Chestnut or Cherry, per yard i.oo 

Pencilled Walnut, per yard i.oo 

Rosewood, per yard i.oo 

Oak or Walnut root, per yard 1.50 

LINEAL MEASURE. 

Grain- Varnish- 
ing ing 

Girth I to 4 inches, per foot 3c ^c 

Girth 4 to 6 inches, per foot 4c ic 

Girth 6 to 8 inches, per foot 5c i34c 

Girth 8 to 10 inches, per foot 6c ij^c 

Girth 10 to 12 inches, per foot 7c i J4c 

Girth 12 to 14 inches, per foot 8c 2C 

Girth 14 to 16 inches, per foot 9c 2}ic 

Girth 16 to 18 inches, per foot loc 2}^c 

Other members in proportion. 

Graining edges of shelves, per foot, ij4c. 

Graining sashes double the price of plain painting. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 173 

MARBLING SQUARE MEASURE. 

White Marble, per yard $0.75 

Other kinds, per yard i.oo 

Varnishing, each coat, per yard 12 

LINEAL MEASURE. 

All members Marbl- Varnish- 

from . ing ing 

I to 8 inch girth, per foot 8c ic 

8 to 10 inch girth, per foot 12c i^c 

10 to 12 inch girth, per foot i6c i^c 

12 to 14 inch girth, per foot i8c 2c 

14 to 16 inch girth, per foot 20c 2j4c 

Larger members in proportion. 

CLEANING AND CALCIMINING. 

Ceihng and walls, per yard i6c 

Plain cornices, i to 2 feet girth, per foot 2c 

Plain cornices, 2 to 4 feet girth, per foot 3c 

Add to the above for each color if more than one, 
per foot IC 

QUESTIONS ON ESTIMATING. 

106. What is said in a general way of estimating? 

107. Tables of reference regarding prices of paint- 
ing to be referred to when needed. 



174 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

EXTERIOR PAINTING. 

1 08. The treatment of painting exposed to the 
tender mercy of the elements such as exterior painting 
has to go through naturally implies a good understand- 
ing of what these conditions are and also a good knowl- 
edge of how to adapt the material used in doing it so 
as to best meet them. Therefore it will be best to first 
review what these are and this will enable us to be 
better prepared to devise a suitable remedy, so that 
whilst decay must in time destroy it, at least that time 
ma}^ be longer delayed. 

CAUSES OF DECAY. 

109. Nature seems very busily engaged in trying 
to reduce all compound substances into its simpler con- 
stituent elements or in recombining them with others 
for which they each have a greater affinity and this 
causes a constant changing or terminating of one part- 
nership and the forming of others. If the reader will 
remember it was said of red lead and of orange mineral 
— one being the bi-oxide and the other the ter-oxide of 
lead that each being overloaded with oxygen had a 
natural tendency to return to their simpler forms of a 
monoxide or litharge; also that English or quicksilver 
vermilion had a tendency to return to its more natural 
form of a black sulphuret of mercury. These are but 
samples of what is constantly taking place in nature. 
The constant changes caused by linseed oil or any of 



Modern Painter^s Cyclopedia 175 

the other fixed oils coming in contact with the oxygen 
in the atmosphere will no doubt have been noticed by 
any one who has taken the pains of so doing. Yet 
while all this is in plain sight how few who have really 
thought anything about it or lost a single moment in 
making any inquiries as to the why and how these 
changes occur. The phenomena of oil drying is won- 
derful and full of interest, yet produces but little in- 
terest or inquiry about it from the great army of those 
who daily use it and the zvhy and z(jherefore never 
bothers them. But there are many who are interested 
and it is due to these, that experimenting has been 
carried on and that some progress has been made in 
the knowledge which the world at large has of it. The 
ignorance regarding the drying of linseed oil is such 
as to hardly be thought possible and Tike as not half of 
the painters when asked as to the hozv it occurs will 
likely as not tell you that it evaporates itself dry. Such 
an explanation of it was once given in a trade paper 
by a man whose name usully carries some weight when 
he writes about the technical application of paint which 
he does know — as he is an expert. When such a man 
can give such a reason as that, it is not to be expected 
that the others not nearly as well posted should be so 
ignorant of it. 

The various- elements composing the air with which 
exterior painting is in constant companionship are all 
invisible, being subtle gases which while when joined 
together in the proper proportions are endued with 



176 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

life giving properties are deadly to all life when sep- 
arated and alone. 

Oxygen, one of the main constituents of our atmos- 
pheric air, is one of the principal component parts of an 
innumerable number of substances and it combines 
readily with most other elements to form compound 
substances. Its action upon the drying of the fixed 
oils is very beneficial — up to a certain point, but after 
that point has been reached, then it becomes harmful, 
as after that point has been past the further action of 
oxygen upon it causes decay. This action is promoted 
and also retarded by many accessory agents and greatly 
accelerated by the presence of another constituent of our 
atmosphere : 

Hydrogen which causes the decay of exterior paint- 
ing by accelerating the action of oxygen and also by 
that of its own beside. But moisture alone without air 
will not cause decay readily nor will it act even in the 
open air without the aid of heat. We have already 
seen what its action is when present either in the paint 
itself or in the surface over which paint is applied ; the 
same being fully explained in paragraph 13 a to ^, 
which see. 

Sunlight and heat may as well be bracketed together 
as they are usually inseparable. Yet each has its own 
particular function as destructive agents of painting. 
Sunlight causes many pigments to fade away but the 
heat which its rays also produce causes it to act much 
more quickly, so that sunlight is much less destructive 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 177 

to color in the winter than it is in the summer. Light 
and heat and moisture are the accessories which help 
hydrogen accomplish its work of destruction and after 
oxygen are the principal factor which cause paint to 
decay. 

These same agents are also very active in causing 
the destruction of the fibres of the woods and for this 
reason it is mainly — after that of beautifying — that the 
painting of exterior surfaces is used to protect them. 
*'How" it does this will have to be understood in 
order to apply the remedy more effectually. 

It would require a larger volume than this devoted 
entirely to the subject to enter minutely into a relation 
of the details which enter into what constitutes the bene- 
ficial action of the elements or their destructiveness of 
painting material and "how" this beneficial and destruc- 
tive agency occurs. As much of it could not be under- 
stood by the reader who is not familiar with chemistry, 
mere generalities will be all that can be indulged in. 

PAINT AS A PROTECTION TO SURFACES. 

III. Not only wood fibres but, metals, stone, brick, 
in fact everything movable or immovable is subject to 
the action of some of the gases which compose atmos- 
pheric air and to others also which are disseminated 
here and there in it. The metal "iron" which is chiefly 
used in large architectural structures, bridges, ships, 
etc., eagerly combines with oxygen to form oxyde of 
iron or rust. Limestone, marbles, and other form of 



178 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

lime are very hungry for sulphurous acid fumes of 
which moisture carries quantities in solution in certain 
localities and which combines with them to quicken 
them on to dissolution. The whole list of stone, in- 
eluding sand or even granite are more or less quickly 
acted upon by some form of the elements or some gases 
carried by the air. 

As the beauty of uncut or cut stone depends upon its 
natural setting and dress it will not be necessary to say 
anything further concerning them as they are seldom 
painted as it destroys their natural beauty and charm. 
But iron which next to woods is fast becoming the chief 
material used in house construction and which prob- 
ably in the near future will become the principal, needs 
to be well protected in order to prevent as much as pos- 
sible the injurious action of the elements upon it. Hav- 
ing no beauty of its own to plead, it has to depend 
upon its protector in a large degree for any artificial 
beauty which that can impart to it, besides the pro- 
tection that it gives it. 

As the principles upon which paint benefits exposed 
surfaces generally speaking are the same for all kinds 
of surfaces let them be iron, steel, wood, brick, stone 
or cement it will be unnecessary to review them sep- 
arately as they apply sufficiently near to each of them. 

Iron, brick, stone or wood are all porous, some so 
much so that these pores can be detected by the naked 
eye. Under a powerful microscope their surfaces ap- 
pear as a huge sponge. It is through these openings 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 179 

that moisture, that greatest enemy of them all — for it 
is mainly by its aid that other destructive agencies are 
able to do their worst — enters and with it all the others 
too. It stands to reason that in order to be able to 
afford protection to this valuable structural material that 
these pores must be closed up effectually in order to 
keep out moisture and the other destructive elements. 

This is the protection that is given them by the 
use of paint properly mixed and applied. The paint 
itself must be finely ground in order to penetrate with 
its vehicle into the pores of the surfaces over which 
it is applied ; therefore the practice of many to use dry 
pigments, such as ochre, Venetian red, etc., is a perni- 
cious one and must be unequivocally condemned. Many 
painters act upon the theory that anything is good 
enough for priming; instead of which they should adopt 
the motto that : Nothing is any too good for it nor too 
finely ground. If any unground pigments must be used 
upon a job, let its place be upon the finishing coat but 
never upon the first. It is the very poorest, foolishest 
of economy to use such for the purpose of priming or 
for any other for that matter as dry pigments soaked 
up in oil and unground is unfit for any kind of painting. 
So that while it is said that it is better to use such on 
the finishing coat rather than the first is to be taken in 
the sense that such would be less harmful there than 
in the priming coat, but not as an indorsement of them 
for that or any other use in painting. 

The action of the vehicle is beneficial in two ways, 



180 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

if it be a proper one well fitted for the purpose. It 
binds the particles of the pigment together and holds 
them in its embrace and it penetrates even to where 
the finest ground pigment could not enter. It must not 
however be so penetrating that it will filter through out 
of sight and leave the pigment entirely. Besides it 
must be able to solidify without any shrinkage of its 
bulk as that would imply some room left open for the 
passage of air. It must also be water or moisture proof 
and that the latter cannot dissolve it nor wash it out. 
So the reader must see at once that the vehicle even 
more than the pigment has a mission to fulfil that re- 
quires a number of good qualities to fit it for the pur- 
pose. 

112. Of all the many liquid substances which can 
be used for the binding of paint or of dry substances 
which when dissolved in water are used as vehicles for 
pigments (as gum arabic or glue) none fulfil the con- 
ditions enumerated in the preceding paragraph as well 
as ''Linseed oil/' the king of the fixed oil and what is 
of enormous importance — as cheaply as that will. It is 
the painter's best friend. 

Linseed oil in common with all other fixed oils 
possesses the quality of absorbing some oxygen from 
the atmosphere and by that subtle gas aid, to solidify 
after having formed a union with it into a waterproof 
rubber-like gum which is elastic and which lends itself 
to the contraction and expansion of the material over 
which paint has been applied so that while solidification 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 181 

takes place, it is not caused by evaporatiorx out rather 
by absorption without loss of bulk, but rather with a 
slight increase of it as it actually does so when it 
combines with oxygen some 8 per cent, thus swelling 
up tightly into every nook in the side of the pores 
through which it has become absorbed. So that it 
not only binds but fills at the one operation. 

The life of linseed oil is prolonged or shortened by 
the action that is produced upon it by the pigments 
with which it has been mixed. 

Some pigments are neutral ; that is, neither acid nor 
alkahne and such have no effect whatever upon it other 
than the separation it produces between its atoms. 
Others again are active in that many of them are alka- 
line, in such a case the alkali will turn the linseed oil 
into a soap which when dry may be or may not be 
soluble and which according as it is one or the other 
may or may not be beneficial to its longevity. 

113. This needs more explanations. Red lead for 
instance is an active pigment, turning the oil into an 
oxy-linoleate lead soap, when dry it becomes insoluble. 
This soap becomes the best of cements to join two 
pieces of glass together and makers of aquariums use 
it for that purpose. This is certainly a very good proof 
of its insolubility. Another proof is the use made of 
it not only as first but as finishing coats for iron ships 
below the floating line where it remains continually sub- 
merged ; it stands that where the neutral pigments 
would surely fail. 



182 Modern Painter*s Cyclopedia 

As a primer for iron it stands head and shoulders 
above any other pigment. It lends itself to all the con- 
tractions and expansions of that metal without cracking 
or checking. So the reader will see that the proper 
kind of an emulsion is not harmful but the reverse. 

An emulsated oil, be that a good one or a bad one, 
will not be subjected to any other changes but dries out 
its water of emulsion by evaporation leaving the lino- 
leate soap to dry in its accustomed manner. But it is 
not iron and steel alone which are benefited by the red 
lead priming, nearly all other metals needing paint as a 
protection or as an embellishment are greatly benefited 
by having been primed with it — when afterward as its 
color is objectionable for many purposes they may re- 
ceive over that any other color wanted. Galvanized 
iron either on plain surfaces or on cornices which have 
been primed with the ordinary mixtures of paint used 
for the rest of the buildings usually scales off in a short 
while, but let it be painted with red lead for first coat 
and there is no more danger of paint scaling after- 
ward than upon any other part of the house. 

114. For wooden buildings there is nothing better 
than a coating of white lead or one of half white lead 
and half French ochre which has been finely ground. 
Both should be greatly thinned with linseed oil, just 
enough pigment being added to that to fairly show 
when applied to the building. 

115. For brick, stone and other porous mineral sub- 
stances finely ground English Venetian red is excellent 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 183 

as a primer but if the finishing coats are intended to 
be painted white or in Hght tints white lead and French 
ochre half and a half — both being also finely ground in 
oil will be better. If the brick or stone is soft the color 
should be as thin as for wood but if the brick or stone 
is very hard and non-absorbent the color should be 
mixed with more pigment and well rubbed out to keep 
it from running. 

Cement which has recently become in almost general 
use in all kinds of house construction and which from 
its being so well adapted to such use is very likely to 
grow into becoming the leading material in the near 
future seems to require a long time to ripen and un- 
dergo certain changes during which time it exudes 
certain salts which have the property of staining 
through paint, thus greatly damaging not only its ap- 
pearance but in disintegrating the coating also. Here- 
tofore it has not been considered safe to apply any 
paint to it until all the deleterious matter it contains 
had come out or was washed away. Many painters 
were afraid to undertake the painting until a cement 
building had been exposed a couple of years at least. 
Thanks however to Mr. Charles MacNichol of Wash- 
ington, D. C, who very disinterestedly made known to 
his brother master painters in convention assembled the 
results of his experiments which enables him to paint 
over cement as soon as he would over any other kind 
of material. It is very simple and consists in dissolving 
equal parts by weight of sulphate of zinc and water and 



184 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

of painting the surface of the cement with the solu- 
tion applying it as any other paint. From all reports 
of those who have tried it it seems to do the work. 

THE PAINTING OF EXTERIOR SURFACES. 

* II 6. a. Considerable space has been devoted to 
noting the various conditions and building material over 
which exterior painting is usually done; each kind of 
material we have seen, having its own peculiarities, in 
the form of its atoms, their sizes, closeness of adherence 
together, etc., requiring in some instance a difference in 
the treatment they should receive in the ''priming" as 
it is the coating which unites the paint to the surfaces 
any number of subsequent coats may be put on. The 
importance of its being well done in a workmanlike 
manner warrants all the space that has been taken up 
in the telling of it, if it will induce the reader to do it 
well — and more. As to the manner of the application 
of the paint, it is supposed that the reader is sufficiently 
acquainted with the ''Modus operandi" of the handling 
of the brush to need any lengthy advice as to the how 
it should be done; nor would it be very easy to show 
him how it is done "under printer's type" ; but a few 
words will be said in the following sections regarding 
priming and the application of the second and third 
coats of paint upon various surfaces. 

PRIMING. 

b. For woods, use white lead or white lead and 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 185 

French ochre, both 'to be finely ground in oil and heavily 
thinned with raw linseed oil. In cold weather if the 
oil is at all viscid, it will be well to add as much as J4 
of turpentine or benzine to it as it will be necessary to 
render it more limpid. It should also have in addition 
a tablespoonful of some good liquid drier to the quart 
as otherwise it might take too long to start it to dry- 
ing and it might become fatty and sticky. No such 
advice as to adding either is given for priming in warm 
weather as then neither volatile oil nor drier is needed. 
Then oil is very fluid and will penetrate into the pores 
but when cold renders it viscid, it becomes sluggish and 
is not sufficiently fluid to penetrate as it should. Prim- 
ing thus treated will penetrate where otherwise it could 
not and really more linseed oil thus thinned out 
can be crushed into the pores than would be possible 
when it is in a viscid condition without the addition. 

It is superfluous to say that the surface of the job 
must be well cleaned and the dust well brushed off be- 
fore the priming is applied. The lumber should be dry 
also. The pernicious practice of following up the car- 
penter with a brush and of priming a board as quick 
as he has hammered in the last nail, may serve his pur- 
pose in preventing any shrinkage on his work. Such a 
practice is all right enough when the lumber is good 
and dry and when there is little moisture in the atmos- 
phere, but during wet weather it is the reverse. It i? 
better to let the lumber have a day's drying rather than 
to paint it damp. It may check, that is true, but better 



186 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

have a few checks which -can be puttied up than blisters 
and paint cracking. 

c. For iron. If the iron is new and free of rust 
which is seldom the case, it will be fit to be primed after 
a good cleaning of dirt and dust, etc. ; it may have 
scales and these should be removed with a putty knife 
and a stiff wire brush, as otherwise the priming coat 
will not penetrate into the main body of the iron and 
such unpainted parts would soon rust. If as usual the 
iron or steel has already started to rusting, a good free 
use of the wire brush will remove it, and a good dusting 
from the painter's duster will fit it to receive the prim- 
ing. As it has been already said, there is nothing 
better, if as good, for the priming of iron, steel and 
other metals than red lead. This pigment cannot be 
bought ready ground up in oil and must form an excep- 
tion to the advice given — never to use colors in a dry 
state in the covering of surfaces with linseed oil paint. 
Red lead has the property of turning linseed oil into a 
soap as noted before, but it has another also 
whic'h prevents its preparation in advance by grind- 
ing in oil as other pigments in that it has the 
property of becoming hardened in it. This would 
render it useless for brushing out, this hardness 
in time being nearly that of the metal itself, 
therefore it. is better to mix it up in oil as wanted 
on the job and still better after having so mixed it to 
run it through a hand paint mill. When put through 
the mill more oil can be used with it without its running 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 187 

than possible by a simple addition of it to the dry pig- 
ment. If put on without the grinding it will have to be 
applied much thicker than any ordinary pigments used 
for priming would have to be otherwise the lead being 
coarser and heavy will separate from the oil and run 
in streaks down the sides of the job. It should there- 
fore be put on thick and rubbed out thin which will 
if carefully done prevent the separating of the red lead. 
d. For brick and stone. If the brick work is in 
good condition and the mortar lines solidly filled and 
the sun has been shining good and bright for a few 
days, so that there is no possibility of any moisture re- 
maining anywhere upon the surface to be painted then 
it is ready for the priming, after having first been well 
cleaned up with the duster. But if the building is an 
old one and has never been painted before it is very 
likely that some of the mortar joints may have to be 
filled up to the same level as the rest of it. This 
should be attended to some few days ahead of the prim- 
ing in order that the moisture may pass entirely away 
before it is applied. The job dusted and cleaned pro- 
ceed to coat it over by a good, faithful brushing in of 
the priming which for a red brick finish or any other 
dark colors may consist of good English Venetian red 
and for light colors of half and have T^rench ochre and 
white lead; neither should be thinned quite so freely 
as stated for wood priming — but it should not be nearly 
so thick as used generally for the finishing coats on 
wood but more like the consistency of that used for 



188 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

second coating on three coat work on wood; but no 
very fixed rule can be given for the reason that brick 
and stone vary greatly in their absorbing power — a soft 
brick being very much more absorbent than a hard one 
and the same may be said of stone. The priming will 
necessarily have to be adapted to suit the particular 
job it is applied upon and the thinning will need to be 
much more freely done for the softer surfaces than 
for the hard ones where there is little absorption and 
where consequently the priming must be put on thick 
and rubbed out thin. 

e. Cement. After the cement or cemented surface 
has received its coat of sulphate of zinc and water and 
the latter has evaporated away as described in the pre- 
ceding paragraph then it should be primed with a good 
medium heavy coat of white lead and French ochre 
half and half of each which must be well rubbed in and 
brushed out, as cement is not very absorbent being in 
that respect very similar to a hard burnt brick and there 
would be some danger of the priming running if put on 
too thin. 

THE SECOND COAT. 

117. It is becoming quite a custom to give new 
wood work only two roats of paint and to wait a year 
or so before putting on any more paint on the building. 
This is a very foolish practice to say no more about 
it and the architects who so specify must be hard up 
for a place to save their client's money as to want to 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 189 

mar the beauty of finish of a building they have planned 
and which would be more creditable to them if turned 
out with the best looks possible than the measly looking 
things it is possible to make of them in two coat work. 
But they have not only hurt the look of it by so specify- 
ing but have deliberately planned to ruin all the future 
painting that may be put on the building. 

The reader will remember the reasons given for a 
thin priming for wood structures. Now if the job is 
to be finished in two coats such a thin priming as rec- 
ommended is an impossibility, because if so given the 
second which is to be the finishing coat on such jobs 
will not cover suf^ciently well and both the architect and 
the owner would make a kick about it, so of necessity 
the priming coat has to be given too heavy and thus 
become a pretty sure cause for future trouble. It 
seems that any one would or should know that in a 
heavy coat of priming much of the oil used in spread- 
ing the pigment will be absorbed away from it by the 
pores underneath and that what is left has an insuf^- 
cient quantity of oil which will leave the priming dry 
and porous. Priming cannot be both a penetrating coat 
and a binder for a surface coat at one and the same 
time. But this is what is required of it if the second 
coat of paint is to be the last. As to the supposed sav- 
ing, it is not worth considering — the three coats neces- 
sary to good work will take but little more material 
than the two heavy coats given and the saving will 
be in the application only. But no matter how heavy 



190 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

the first coat may have been appHed, it cannot stop the 
suction evenly and the second coat must dry uneven in 
appearance over it, as it will sink in, in the soft parts 
of the wood, and in the parts where there is no suction 
it will be glossy, giving a sort of arlequin look — any- 
thing but what is should be — certainly not a credit to 
the painter who puts it on. 

THE PAINTING OF THE SECOND COAT. 

1x8. a. Before proceeding to the painting of the 
second coat — the puttying should be done. It is sup- 
posed that a reasonable time to dry has been given the 
priming coat. The word dry means something else 
besides that it will not rub off when it is touched. 
It means that the oil has undergone all the changes 
during the time it absorbs oxygen. This it does while 
it feels dry and for some days after, so that there should 
be eight or ten days allowed before it is real dry. 

b. Nail holes, joints, cracks and checks or any de- 
fects in the carpenter's work should be carefully gone 
over and stopped upon the priming coat and should 
never be done before the priming has been applied; 
for then the cracks, nail holes, etc., have been filled up 
with oil and the putty will stick to it, which it would 
not do if it had been done before for then the pores, 
cracks, etc., would have pumped all the oil out of it, 
leaving it oilless, showing fine lines all around it which 
could be seen through the several coats of paint ap- 
plied over it. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 191 

c. The painting of the second coat — if that must be 
the last one, should be as heavy or even heavier than 
it is usual for the third coat where three coats are 
given. As the wood is not properly filled up, some of 
the oil of this second coat will be absorbed by the first 
coat, especially as that has been put on too heavy and 
that it has become porous from having its pigment left 
with an insufihciency of oil. This of course will make 
the paint flat from having to part with some of its oil 
to the pigment of the first coat. But as the knotty parts 
have little absorption, these localities will have a gloss 
with the result already mentioned that it will not look 
uniform. 

While the above is said concerning wooden buildings, 
it will also apply to brick and stone structures, as usually 
they absorb even more oil (being more porous than 
wood) and if the brick is at all soft it will absorb much 
more. Cement of course is less absorbent but still even 
upon that it is not always possible to make a good even 
looking job in two coats of paint. The puttying, if any 
be required, should be done before the application of 
the second coat as was related for that of wood. 

The second coat should be about the same as for 
wood, thinned to suit the job which may be so very 
porous as to be still absorbent in which case it can be 
thinned more than if it is to be the last coat; if it is 
to be followed by a third coat, it should be of nearly 
the same color as the finishing coat, just a shade darker 
to serve as a guide for the third coat, as then one can 



192 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

readily perceive if the whole of the surface has been 
gone over. The above will apply with equal force to 
all kinds of painting although it is not absolutely neces- 
sary. If the weather is cool, a little turpentine added 
to the second coat of paint will make it work better and 
will not harm it — but it must not be over done. 

THE THIRD COAT. 

119. After the second coat has become quite hard 
which will take about as long as the priming, it will 
be ready to receive the third or last coat. Before it is 
applied the surface should be slightly sandpapered to 
cut down any uneven streaks or dust and dirt which 
may have blowed against it while it was fresh. This 
sandpapering can be done as each stretch is being 
painted and while the ladders or scaffolding is being 
used for that, as it will save a needless moving of these. 

All new work after having received two coats of 
paint will be well filled and will have become non-ab- 
sorbent or very nearly so; consequently the third coat 
will dry upon the surface of the second without part- 
ing with any of its oil and will dry with a full uniform 
gloss. This seals up everything from the injurious 
action of the elements and will afford the protection 
that good painting is expected to give the surfaces over 
which it has been applied. 

For third coat the paint should be mixed middling 
heavy for all kinds of surfaces, wood, brick, stone, 
cement or iron and the thinner should consist entirely 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 193 

of linseed oil. No turpentine should be used, as it 
will need all the oil it should carry to bind on the pig- 
ment. Being rather thick and heavy it should be well 
brushed out but it should not be skinned on. 

REPAINTING OLD WORK. 

1 20. a. All that has been said in the previous par- 
agraphs concerning the painting of exterior surfaces 
supposed these to be new and to have never been painted 
before. The painting over of surfaces which have 
been painted before is somewhat different than that of 
new work, yet in many respects it is similar to that. 
The thief difference being in the priming coat, which 
will not be necessary for old work. 

If the repainting has not been delayed too long there 
will be no difficulties. The linseed oil of the previous 
painting may have become porous but unless the paint- 
ing is very old, it will not absorb as much oil as the 
priming did when first put on. 

The surface should be well cleaned up and dusted 
and puttied up and two coats of paint applied over it 
which will make the job as good as ever again. 

But the paint may not be in good condition. From 
various causes it may be scaling or may have had so 
many coats put on it that it would be dangerous to 
apply any more to it. There is but one thing to do 
under such circumstances and that is to burn it off with 
a good gasoline torch following it up with a wide putty 
knife. Some are afraid tc undertake it. but with a 



194 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

little care it is safe enough and much the easiest 
way to remove old paint upon weatherboarding. Then 
the job should be sandpapered, primed anew, second 
^nd third coated as for new work. 

If the job is very old and weatherbeaten it may be 
necessary to fill it, for it will have become so absorbent 
that the oil will seem to soak clean through the boards 
and out again. 

b. Such old weatherbeaten surfaces are dreadful 
and will require more paint and oil than they are worth 
— if put on in the ordinary way. 

They should first be filled. A very good way to do 
that is to make an emulsion of the first coat of paint 
in this way : Take 25 lbs. of white lead and add this 
to 10 lbs. of whiting which has been previously mixed 
up to a stiff paste with water. Mix the white lead with 
it, paddling it until it has formed into a stiff paste. In 
a short time the whiting which is carbonate of lime will 
have emulsated the oil and the two will mix readily. 
Now thin this with half linseed oil and half sweet milk 
— putting in the sweet milk first, a little at a time — so 
that it may become absorbed before any more goes in 
when about half a gallon has been absorbed add about 
the same quantity of linseed oil. This may require a 
little more thinning for that quantity of material, if 
needed use more milk and oil in the same proportion. 
Apply this with a brush as any other paint when it 
will be found to slide over the old boards with ease, 
whereas before a brush full of all oil paint would hardly 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 195 

paint a surface larger than where it first touched the 
board. When gone over the surface will be much 
smoother than it would have been possible with an oil 
paint and a good coat of all linseed oil paint given 
over it will make out of it not only a nicer looking job 
of it but a much better one as well, much better in fact 
than it would if a whole barrel of linseed oil had been 
wasted upon it. 

No one need to be afraid that the above will go 
wrong with them for it zvill not. The writer is so sure 
of that that he is willing to stake his last cent on it — 
as not only being as good but better and that the finish 
will be smoother. Any one who has had such old jobs 
to paint will comprehend what is meant by that, es- 
pecially if he has done the painting in the ordinary way 
— to such this smooth finish will be a revelation and 
will astonish them. 

As stated before two coats are usually enough for re • 
painting any old work excepting when it has been 
burned off. 

QUESTIONS ON EXTERIOR PAINTING. 

io8. What is said of exterior painting in general r' 

109. What are the causes of decay in exterior 
painting? 

1 10. How does paint protect surfaces ? 

111. What action performs the vehicle in surface 
protection? 

112. In what way does linseed oil fulfil the require- 



196 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

ments needed as a vehicle of pigments in exterioi: 
painting? 

113. What is said of red lead as an iron primer? 

1 14. What is the best wood primer? 

115. W'hat pigments are best for priming brick, 
stone, etc.? 

116. a. What is said of the painting of outside 

work in a general way? 

b. How should wood buildings be primed ? 

c. How should iron be primed ? 

e. How should cement be treated and 
primed? 

117. a. What is said regarding finishing the ex- 

terior painting on new work in two 
coats ? 
b. When should the puttying be done ? 

118. a. When should the second coat be applied? 
b. How should the painting of the second 

coat be done ? 

119. How should the third coat be mixed and 
applied ? 

120. a. What is said regarding the painting of 

old buildings ? 

b. How would you treat old weatherbeaten 

buildings ? 

c. How should paint be mixed for repaint- 

ing? 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 197 

ENAMELING. 

CHINA OR PORCELAIN FINISH. 

121. China, Porcelain or Enamel painting are con^ 
trovertible terms for the same thing. It is a most 
beautiful way of painting the interior wood work of 
rooms. It may be done in any self color without orna- 
mentation or it may be used in connection with gold 
upon some member of the moulding, but it looks best in 
white or light tints. 

In the white or in very tender tints such as ivory 
white or pearl white only will it show its beautiful effect 
of solidity yet with an indescribable transparency which 
is so much admired. The gloss without this transparency 
would be apt to clog and look heavy when done in dark 
tints or colors. As 95 per cent of enameHng is done in 
white the process described below is mainly applicable 
to that and other very light tints. For dark colors the 
number of coats can be reduced, as no such care will 
be required to build it up. 

122. When the job is new and has never been painted 
before the wood work should be carefully dusted and 
the room swept clean of dirt and dust before commenc- 
ing operations; then it should be primed with white 
lead and linseed oil, put on somewhat thicker than rec- 
ommended for the priming of the exterior of wooden 
buildings. 

This priming coat should be allowed fully one week 
before it is painted over with the second coat. The 



198 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

puttying up of all nail holes, depressions, cracks and 
any hollow defects should also be done now with putty 
prepared as described in paragraph 47, which see, as 
that will sandpaper smooth. 

123. The second coat should be mixed from flake 
white and zinc white half and half of each by weight. 
If fl^ke white is not readily obtainable, some good 
white lead — that is white may be used instead. This 
should be thinned with linseed oil and turpentine half 
and half of each and applied smoothly. When dry 
which should take another week if the time can be 
spared, if not then in not less than three days, the coat- 
ing will be ready for sandpapering and dusting after- 
ward. Should any imperfections have been overlooked 
in puttying up on the priming coat, it should now be 
attended to as it is the only time when it can be rem- 
edied by leveling up with the same kind of putty as 
was used before. The second coat should be mixed 
also a trifle heavier than it is usual to do on outside 
work which is to be followed up with a third coat. 

124. The third coat should consist of zinc white 
ground in poppy seed oil for the best class of finish, 
although a good green seal French process zinc ground 
in bleached linseed oil will answer nearly as well. No 
white lead should be used on this coat. When good 
genuine French process zinc white has been used and 
it is thinned with %. of poppy seed oil or bleached lin- 
seed oil and ^ turpentine put on rather thick and well 
rubbed out, the job should look solidly and uniformly 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 199 

white carrying a fine semi-gloss. If however for any 
reason it should not look perfectly white and uniform 
then give it another coat. 

125. Fourth coat mixed as described for the third 
and the job should be gone over with it in the same 
way. This will assure a full, uniform finish all over 
the surface alike. It always pays in the end to give 
this fourth coat even when one feels reasonably certain 
that the third is all it should be. 

126. The fifth or the flat coat should be mixed from 
green seal French process zinc white and should be 
thinned with turpentine only with just enough very 
light colored varnish to bind it on and this should be 
laid with a camel's hair coach color brush — after the 
previous coat has been carefully sandpapererd and 
dusted ofi and the room swept clean, with all windows 
and doors shut to keep the air out so that the coating 
may set as slow as possible in order to have time to 
make joints on the work without doubling up and show- 
ing laps. This coat dries rapidly and usually will be 
ready for the next in twenty-four hours. 

127. The sixth coat should consist of green seal 
French process zinc white ground in damar varnish, 
thinned with half damar varnish and half turpentine 
and should be very evenly applied with a camel's hair 
coach color brush. 

128. The seventh and last coat should be damar 
varnish of ^ood quality into which just enough zinc 
white has been added to tinge it slightly — this is done 



200 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

in order to remove any tinge of yellowishness that 
might be present in the damar varnish and it will also 
prevent any cloudiness on the finish, but it must not 
be overdone as the less color used the better it will 
be. It goes without the saying it that nothing but a 
camel's hair brush should be used in applying it. While 
it must not be flowed on as in finishing carriage work, 
it should be put on full and not skinned on. 

This sort of finish requires seven coats as narrated, 
but if the third is good enough the fourth may be 
dispensed with reducing it to six. The extra coat, 
however, is best to be put on and where economy need 
not be practiced it is better to always give it to make 
assurance doubly sure. 

When tints are used instead of white alone a good 
copal varnish of pale tone can be advantageously sub- 
stituted for the damar as that is softer and less water- 
proof than the other; besides it will stand harder usage 
in cleaning than that too. 

This makes a beautiful finish with a soft porcelain 
or china look which shows transparency and opaque- 
ness combined — a depth of tone similar to some that 
are obtained by the coach painter in over glazing and 
it carries a look which is unobtainable by any other 
method. The "modus operandi" may be thought irk- 
some, but after all it is not so very difficult as many 
suppose it to be. Neatness and cleanness throughout 
all the operations is the main thing and plenty of 
time so that no part need be hurried onward before 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 201 

it is fit for the next move. When disasters happen and 
sometimes they do, they can always be traced to the 
above two causes aside of that of the use of improper 
material for which there is no excuse. Of course it 
would be possible for a botch to so apply the china 
finish that an uneven surface would be produced and 
that instead of a joy producing affair might be made 
an eyesore, but no professional painter used to brush- 
ing out his paint evenly need be afraid to tackle it. 
129. On old work enameling. There is but little 
difference between the manner of doing that except 
in so far that the filling and priming coats having al- 
ready been done, this will be unnecessary. If the work 
has been painted white or very light tints after putty- 
ing up, sandpapering and cleaning it up properly a good 
coat of white lead should be given it thinned with 
J4 linseed oil and % turpentine, after which the mix- 
ing recommended for third coat for new work should 
be put on and the flat coat over that as this ought to 
make it very solid and opaque. Then the rest should 
be put on just exactly as recommended for the treat- 
ment of new wood. 

QUESTIONS ON ENAMELING. ■ 

121. What is said of enameling? 

122. How should the wood work be primed? 

123. How is the second coat mixed? 

124. How should the third coat be mixed ? 

125. Is a fourth coat always necessary? 



202 Modern Painters Cyclopedia 

126. How is the fifth or flat coat apphed? 

127. How is the sixth coat prepared ? 

1 28. How would you apply the seventh coat ? 

129. Wherein does enameling old work differ from 



new: 



FLATTING. 

130. The flatting of paint upon wod work at least 
is usually done upon the inside only. It is by far the 
prettiest manner of finishing it. Flatting has a soft- 
ness of finish and reposeful look to it which cannot be 
obtained from gloss coats such as are given to the out- 
side of buildings. The preceding paragraphs give the 
method used in painting wood work in enamel which 
certainly carries a gloss too and the statements made 
under that head seem at first to be at variance with 
those made here ; but there is a wide difference between 
a glaring gloss such as linseed oil produces on the out- 
side and the softness of finish of an enamel such a 
was described — but even the subdued and toned down 
glare of an enamel coat would pall upon most persons 
if every room in the house should be done with it. As 
only a few such are done in most houses the change 
from the flat to a well done enamel is pleasing by con- 
trast. A whole house alone in enamel would tire out 
its occupants much quicker than if it had all been done 
in flat work. 

If anything could make a person walk about with a 
chip on his shoulder looking for some one to touch if 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 203 

in order to find an excuse for knocking him down, that 
person is surely living in a house where glaring colors 
on walls and wood work stare him in the face the live 
long day and it would surely put an average man on 
the warpath. It acts upon him precisely as a red flag 
is said to act upon the optics of a bull, rendering them 
desperate. 

While glaring gloss paint possess this exasperating 
quality — if quality it be; flat or dead painting has just 
the contrary effect, it produces a quieting effect upon 
the mind. 

131. To flat wood work which has been painted 
before, it should have had at least three coats including 
the priming. 

There is a rule in flatting paint which applies with 
equal force upon all kinds of material or surfaces over 
which it is put to wit : That the flat coat should be put 
on over a gloss coat or that if a gloss coat is desired 
that it should be put on over a flat one. If the reader 
will bear this in mind, he will never have trouble in ob- 
taining a good flat or gloss upon any kind of surface. 

If the wood work is old and has been already finished 
flat or semi-flat and it is to be refinished in flatting so 
much the better as one coat of gloss can be applied over 
it which will make a good ground for the flat and will 
help hold it on, if the flatting is not delayed too long. 

To produce a dead Hat the paint must be thinned with 
turpentine only. Usually most pigment ground in lin- 
seed oil contain enough of that to bind them on, but 



204 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

white lead is not ground with enough of it to bind it 
on as good as it should be and it would soon wash off 
with the ordinary cleaning painting receives in most 
households and it is much better to add a trifle of linseed 
oil to it in order to bind it better. This will make it carry 
a very slight gloss, barely noticeable, called an tgg 
shell gloss — but it must not be overdone, one table 
spoonful to the pint of paint will suffice. This is ad- 
visable as better than a dead flat for the wood work 
which is subject to being touched by greasy sweaty 
hands and what not — in unavoidable accidents. 

In warm, weather all flat paints being thinned with 
turpentine evaporate very fast and set quickly so that 
to do good work, it must be put on very quickly so 
the painter should be very careful when painting the 
panels of a door not to run the paint over on the rails 
or stiles or in painting the rails to square up pretty 
even to the stiles in order that there may be no set 
paint upon such parts when he gets to them in the 
course of his painting. If he accidently does run over 
them he should wipe it off with a clean rag. 

Great care must be taken to close up all openings 
which might let in the outer air such as windows, doors, 
etc. This will prevent in a measure the too sudden 
evaporation of the turpentine and usually will give a 
person time to do the work before it sets. 

132. Flatting walls and ceilings demand exactly 
the same treatment as is required for wood work, to 
wit: a good gloss coat for underground. The same 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 205 

care to keep out drafts of air and air itself as much as 
possible. One person should never undertake to flat 
the walls or ceiling of a room alone, but should always 
have another man to help him. 

On the ceilings of most ordinary sized rooms, the 
work can be divided up in two stretches. The first 
man commencing the painting at the side of the room 
on to the center when the other man takes it up on to 
the opposite side, continuing in this way until the ceil- 
ing is done. If the ceiling is very wide, in halls and in 
stores, three and even four or more irjen will be needed 
to carry the full width along through. 

On an ordinary sized room the walls can also be 
divided up in two strips, with one man to take the 
lUpper strip from the ceiling down to the middle from 
a step ladder while the lower man can do the rest of 
it from the floor. Where the walls are above lo feet 
three or more men will be needed according to height. 

If the job is to be stippled as it should be, it will be 
better to have the previous gloss coat also stippled as 
one coat only is apt to look uneven. On the flat coat the 
stipplers should be right behind the men who apply the 
flatting and should never allow the flat paint to become 
set before the stippling has been done for no good 
stippling can be done over paint that has set. 

133. Brick flatting is not so difficult to execute as 
the same kind of work on wood or plaster because the 
painter cah stop his painting anywhere, if he squares it 
up to a brick joint either at the bottom or side of a 



206 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

stretch. It requires carefulness mainly. The flatting of 
brick work on outside or exterior surfaces can have 
but one excuse which is to imitate pressed brick by 
producing an even dead flat surface. This it very 
closely does. 

Like all flatting the ground to hold it should be pretty 
glossy and oiled and to have been painted but a couple 
of days previous to the application of the flat coat for 
the reason aready given and another very good one be- 
sides which is that the gloss coat being still tacky will 
dry and hold the flat coat very fast and this it sorely 
needs as the turpentine thinner which was used in its 
application could not be of any help in holding it on 
with the battle it must endure against the warring ele- 
ments which would otherwise make short work of it 
and wash it off. But if done as recommended before 
the gloss coat has completely hardened the two prac- 
tically become one coat only, drying together. 

QUESTIONS ON FLATTING. 

130. What is said of flatting in general? 

131. How is the wood work flatted ? 

132. How is flatting done on plastered walls? 

133. How is brick flatting done ? 

FRESCO PAINTING. 

134. True Fresco such as practiced the great mas- 
ters of the Renaissance period and of which the greatest 
of them all Michael Angelo has left such numerous and 
shining examples, may be said to be a dead art today as 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 207 

few if any practice it even in an amateurish way. This 
no doubt is due to the fault of this age '"Hurry." The 
present times require speed and to be just — to the many 
new ways and inventions in pigments as well as in the 
methods of their application which were unknown in 
the days when it flourished. 

True fresco is very far removed from what is now 
understood to be that art under the same name. Fresco 
in Italian means fresh and it indicates the character of 
the painting it designated, i. e., painting upon fresh 
laid plaster. In fact it was a part of the plastering itself 
as the frescoer in those days had to do it himself and 
no faster than he could color it and put it on. So the 
fresh lime and sand served him both as surface and 
binder. Naturally he was restricted in the use of pig- 
ments to such as were not affected by lime and one 
can well wonder today at the knowledge of effects they 
must have had to judge of the right mixture to make 
the variations in their shadings to produce such Hfe like 
pictures as they did with the limitations of such re- 
stricted palettes as they possessed then. 

True fresco will have to be dismissed with the few 
outlines of it that are given above, as such it is now 
too near obsolete to warrant any more details concern- 
ing it. A few artists have tried hard to renew it but 
its revival never extended beyond a narrow circle and it 
was not a success. It had its days and our age will 
^ave none of its slow methods and limitations of 
colorings. 



208 Modern Painter* s Cyclopedia 

135. Fresco painting or the decorative painting 
which is known under that name in America today is of 
two kinds to wit : ist. Fresco painting in water colors 
or distemper. 2d. Fresco painting in oil colors on 
flattened walls and ceilings. 

136. Fresco painting in water colors or distemper is 
very popular and a number of our largest churches, 
halls, theatres, and private residences as well as public 
buildings are decorated in that manner. As the prep- 
aration of the walls and ceilings is similar to calcimin- 
ing the reader is referred to- what is said in paragraphs 
31 to 38 for full information concerning this as it is 
the same up to the point where the decoration com- 
mences. As the decoration and the manner of execut- 
ing it is very much the same for both water color and 
oil painting aside of the difference of mixing the colors 
and their manipulations previous to their application, 
this will be considered together making due allowance 
for their difference. 

137. a. Fresco painting in oil requires a proper 
preparation of the walls and ceilings with oil paint to 
fit them for receiving the decorations. Fresco painting 
in oil is by far the most satisfactory and the most per- 
manent way of doing this work. Unlike water color 
fresco, the walls can be washed with water and ordinary 
dirt can be easily cleaned off from them without injury 
to the decorations therefore it should be encouraged 
more than it is. It is very true that on account of its bet- 
ter flatting properties that water color frescoing looks 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 209 

best for a while at least — but when a person takes in 
consideration the great danger of having the whole work 
spoiled it is questionable if the difference in looks will 
warrant one in taking such risks. The superior finish 
and transparent effects of the decorative painting done 
in oil colors too, will more than balance the lack of 
perfection in the flatting of the walls. While the prepa- 
ration of the walls is much cheaper in water colors 
than in oil the cost of the decorations which is really 
the main item of expense to be considered is very nearly 
the same for both and if this is at all intricate the dif- 
ference will be slight in the making up of the total. 

PREPARATION OF THE WALLS FOR OIL FRESCO. 

b. There are three methods employed in preparing 
walls so that they may be decorated in oil fresco, which 
are as follows: 

1st. To size the walls with glue size or a sur facer 
with a glue size over it and to give them one coat of 
gloss paint followed by a flat coat upon it. 

2d. To paint one coat of linseed oil paint over the 
walls, then give one coat of glue size over it to be 
followed with one coat of gloss and another of flat 
paint over it. 

3d. The last is the best way. It consists in paint- 
ing the walls with three coats of oil paint and to follow 
this with another of flat paint. 

The first method answers fairly well, when there is 
Ho danger of moisture or water coming through the 



210 Modern Painter's Cyclopedias 

plaster. If there is and there always is such a possibility 
in accidents, the glue will swell and surely crack and 
peel off. 

The second is much less likely to suffer from such 
a cause, but yet it is not entirely immune from injury 
from that cause. Water if present for a long time 
will filter finally through the one linseed oil coating 
and the sizing will also flake off. 

But the third is a dead sure thing and a perfect 
guarantee can be given with it from any such a cause 
and that it will last as long as the plaster is not knocked 
off or other injuries received from the outside. 

Some plastered walls have very persistent fire cracks 
as they are technically called by fresco painters. These 
fire cracks do not appear usually until after the painting 
of the first oil coat. They run in all directions and seem 
to absorb oil "ad libitum" nor to seem to know when 
they have enough of it. Ordinarily three coats of oil 
paint plus one flat coat over them suflice to stop this 
suction but then again sometimes it will not. In such 
a case there is nothing to do but to give another 
coat after the third and in some very bad cases even 
another may be needed to stop this suction as it would 
mar the finish. This is hardly ever necessary and as 
said before three coats plus a flat one is usually all that 
is needed and where so much expense has been incurred 
an extra coat should not be dispensed with if necessary 
to insure a good finish. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 211 

THE TOOLS NEEDED. 

138. Level and plumb, straight edges, T square 
dividers of various sizes, some long legged wooden 
ones, chalk lines, etc., a number of various sizes of small 
bristle brushes of round, flat and triangular shapes (the 
latter for angles), see Figs. 18 and 19. The large cal- 
cimining brush (Fig. i) and various sizes of water 
color camel's hair brushes. For very fine work in oil or 
water colors, a full set of artist's brushes in sable, ox 
hair and camel's hair will also be needed. 

For oil work there will be needed for the preparing 
of the walls some good wall brushes, as shown in Figs. 
3 and 4 and a stippling brush Fig. 2. 

Step ladders, trestles and some two inch thick walk- 
ing boards. Some few 12 quart galvanized pails for 
use in distempering, some one gallon tin pails for col- 
ors used in painting the walls in oil, and a number of 
small tins to hold the colors needed for the decorative 
portion of the work. Glue pot, strainers, etc. These 
are the principal tools and appliances needed. To these 
however, every decorator has some pet tool or another 
that he would wish to add to the list. 

MATERIAL USED. 

139. a. For distempering: Whiting is the prin- 
cipal color used as a base for tinting. For self coloring 
or for the preparing of tints, all kinds of dry pigments 
excepting such as are noted as unsafe to use in water 
colors under the heading of "Colors." Gum arable 



212 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

glue, and gold leaf besides all the bronzes, metallics, 
flitters, etc. 

b. For oil work : White lead and zinc white ground 
in oil. All the various pigments which are to be found 
ground in oil may be used in decorating. 

THE PAINTING. 

140. Painting the walls in distemper and preparing 
the colors for the same is identically the same as fully 
described under the heading "Calcimining," so the 
reader is referred to paragraphs 34 to 37 for the in- 
formation required. 

141. This work in oil as it was seen, is entirely 
different from that done in water colors. See para- 
graph 125, as that explains the various methods suffi- 
ciently and needs not to be repeated here. 

THE DECORATING. 

142. This is a big subject, so it will be impossible 
to do it justice in the space available, for it must cover 
the whole field of designing in lineal, mechanical and 
free hand drawing, each of which by itself, alone, 
would more than fill this volume. 

For the cheaper work, most of it is done with sten- 
cils in one, two, three or more colors, either in dis- 
temper or in oil with a few hand painted lines. The 
ceilings being usually divided in panels and stiles, the 
latter of a different tint, bordered by a narrow divid- 
ing line from the panel. Some small stencil bordering 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 213 

is sometimes used and also in other cases a stenciled 
center piece with corners and a break between. The 
walls receive a stenciled border or frieze. The reader 
is referred to that portion of this manual treating spe- 
cially upon stencils for fuller information regarding 
them. 

Much hand decoration can be made by persons who 
know little of drawing, if they buy some of the deco- 
rative schemes that are for sale or which they can copy 
and enlarge from books on decoration, to be had from 
most art stores. They must not undertake anything 
too intricate at first but gradually work their way up- 
ward. Much of decoration even in hand work is repe- 
titions of a few designs. These can be enlarged to the 
exact size desired upon a sheet of manilla paper. When 
the design has been copied to the satisfaction of the 
decorator, it should be run over all its lines with a 
tracing wheel or in default of it, pricked through with 
a coarse needle. The better way to do this is to place 
the sheet upon a cushion or some blanket or cloth so 
that the needle will pierce it more easily. When so 
pricked the holes will not readily clog up. The pounces 
so prepared can be used to duplicate a design any num- 
ber of times wanted. It is held in place upon the 
ceiling or walls by means of small thumb drawing tacks 
with wide heads and small short points. A small piece 
of muslin, not too closely woven, in the center of which 
has been placed a few spoonsful of powdered charcoal 
or some dry color which can be seen on the wall, and 



214 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

the side of the rag drawn up tight around it, after tying 
some string around it, the pricked design is pounced 
over with this color bag and it will be found that it has 
sifted through the holes in the design onto the walls 
and marked out an exact duplicate of the design pricked 
on the paper, which can be traced out with a brush and 
colored to suit, in as many colors as desired. 

The whole ceiling should be laid out true and 
squared up for the paneling, center, corners and 
brakes, and their true position mapped out, and then 
it is ready for the painting of the decoration. 

While the beginner is not advised to undertake to do 
a class of work which requires much previous training, 
there is much very pretty, neat decorations which he 
could do and with some practice gradually grow up into 
the more intricate parts of the business. He should 
study drawing and the harmonious use of color, for 
without that the ability of a Michael Angelo would be 
of no avail and his best work would look — Bum. 

QUESTIONS ON FRESCO PAINTING. 

134. What is true Fresco? 

135. How many sorts of Fresco (so called) ? 

136. What is Fresco in water colors? 

137. a. What is Fresco painting in oil colors? 

b. How are walls prepared for frescoing in 
oil? 

138. What are the tools and appliances needed? 

139. a. What material is needed for distemper 

work ? 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 215 

b. What material is used in oil Fresco ? 

140. How are walls done in water colors? 

141. How are they done in oil colors ? 

142. What is said about the decorating? 

GILDING AND BRONZING. 

143. a. Gilding is the name used to designate 
the art of laying on of gold leaf and binding it on to 
surfaces for the purpose of ornamentation. It is not 
a new art by any means, as it was practiced in very 
early days. Many persons who will read this have no 
doubt had the privilege of examining some of the old 
manuscript books preserved in the larger libraries with 
so much care, and must have witnessed with astonish- 
ment, the wealth of coloring with a profuse use of gold 
in the illustrations, that the Monks of the middle ages 
patiently wrought out in the making up of annals, 
chronicles and especially missals. One can hardly real- 
ize that such beautiful capitals and headings could 
possibly have been done during a period which many 
of us have been taught that ignorance reigned su- 
preme in the land. The pseudo historians who would 
have the people believe thus, however, cannot well hide 
the living witnesses to the contrary, in stone, paint- 
ings, gildings, carvings, in the shape of stately cathe- 
drals, churches, castles and public buildings and during 
that period the handicraft of the gold beater and gilder 
was probably as much used, according to the wealth 
of the times, as they are today. Much of the lacelike 



216 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

tracery of the sculptured woods which then was the 
covering — with tapestries used in the best rooms over 
the bare stone walls — were decorated with gilt upon 
some members of moulding or to emphasize some par- 
ticular ornament. 

The use of gold in decoration is nearly as old as 
civilization itself and it would be hard to find some of 
the recently discovered remains of their vanished civil- 
ization without also finding that gold was used in 
some way or another in their ornamentation. 

The goldsmith and gold beater no doubt was known 
hundreds of years before western Europe was more 
than a vast forest broken up here and there with a lit- 
tle open ground which afYorded pasturage to a few 
herds belonging to the tribal people whose descendants 
today claim more culture than any other nations of the 
world. 

With the great wealth which has resulted from the 
discovery of America by Columbus, and from the prod- 
uct of its numerous gold mines, has been continuously 
adding to that year by year ever since, gold becoming 
so plentiful, it is little wonder that its employment in 
decoration has been making a constant gain and that 
at the present time there are few if any of the dwellers 
of the land who do not have more or less gilding or 
gilded objects in their home, let that be as humble as 
it may. If upon nothing else than a picture frame, or 
gilt-edged book or china cup. The use of gold leaf is 
enormous and it is not confined to the decorations of 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 217 

the interior alone by no means, but exterior decora- 
tions and embellishments are done with it on an 
enormous scale. Domes of the largest size are entirely- 
covered with it on statehouses, churches, halls and 
ether public buildings, producing most brilliantly lighted 
effects which please the eyes and civic pride of the 
millions who live in the cities containing them. Many 
private residences decorated with wrought iron crest- 
ings have their most prominent parts emphasized with 
gold leaf, mouldings of outer doors and what not. But 
the most profuse use made of it upon exteriors is by the 
sign writer for gilded signs on wood or upon the glass 
fronts of stores or other public buildings. 

There must be some very potent reasons why gold 
has been employed for so long a time and for that of a 
constantly increasing use in ornamentation. In the 
first place, gold being very bright, of a rich tone, it 
illuminates everything it comes in contact with. It 
does not oxidize and with aluminum, another metal 
having the same property, it remains unchanged amidst 
the constant changing with which it is surrounded on 
all sides, so that while its first cost appears great when 
compared with the cheaper metals, its greater dura- 
bility to say nothing of its embellishing property, re- 
duces this in the end. The cost of application being 
the same if gold lasts as long as the object over which 
it is placed does and which would have had to have 
been done over many times over again with any other 
finish, the higher first cost will not appear so great 
after all and may really be the cheapest in the end. 



218 Modern Painter's Cyclopedic 

In interior work and ornamentation it is used even 
more extensively than upon the exterior; all kinds of 
wall ornamentation being adorned with it, even wall 
paper of the better sorts has some gold tracery upon it 
and in the higher grades it is put on by hand. Mould- 
ings and sculptured and carved parts on woodwork 
especially in the tasty and dainty — white and gold 
enamel finish. It imparts richness to water- and oil 
color work so that the fresco painter must be a good 
gilder if he wishes to obtain good results from his 
work. Even the dinner table bears it up at least as 
the ornamentations on china platter, plate or cup bears 
witness. 

b. Gold is one of the most ductile of the metals and 
this is what makes its use possible to the extent it is for 
if gold could not be beaten out in sheets thinner than 
iron can be there would be but few persons so fortun- 
ately situated as to be able to afford to use it on account 
of its great cost. But its ductility permits its being 
beaten to a very remarkable degree of thinness and still 
leaving it entire and solid. It is possible to beat it so 
thin that it would take 350,000 sheets placed one upon 
another to make a pile of them one inch in height and 
one single ounce of gold will beat out into 2,500 leaves 
3^4 inches square, besides the tailings cut off to square 
the sheets and which are remelted again. 

144. a. Gold is alloyed with many other metals 
and in many different combinations with them to pro- 
duce the various colors of it demanded by certain in- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 219 

dustries for special objects. The colors of it that are 
best known and which all the supply stores handle are 
the "pale gold" which as the name indicates is of a 
light tone, to "deep" and "extra deep" which give the 
rich gold tones and which are mostly used. 

Gold leaf comes in books containing 25 leaves 3>4 
inches square and a pack contains 40 books or 1,000 • 
sheets. Gold leaf is placed between the paper leaves of 
a book hence the name. The leaves having been 
rubbed over with red chalk or bole to keep the leaf 
from sticking to the paper as otherwise there might be 
some greasy spots which might hold the gold when it 
would be broken to pieces when an attempt is made 
to remove them from the book. 

b. All gold leaf manufacturers now also pack it 
by first attaching each sheet of gold upon a sheet of 
paper just a trifle larger upon which some substance has 
been rubbed which gives the paper a slight adherence, 
sufficient to hold the gold leaf when these are placed 
inside of the books in the same manner as the loose 
leaves are. This is a good thing especially so to those 
who have to do any outside gilding as one may well 
infer, when even indoor the least breath of air will send 
it flying about like feathers. If the manufacturers 
would only use as good a quality of leaf for what is 
known as their "Stuck leaf" it would be all that could 
be desired, not only for outside where it can be used 
with impunity in any wind, but for inside also— except- 
ing always water and glue sizes for which they would 



220 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia^ 

not answer. The better way is to use paraffine wax to 
rub over sheets of paper and stick the gold on it that 
is packed loose, it can then be cut with little or no waste 
and the leaf will have all the density that the loose leaf 
has usually to a greater degree than the "Stuck" or 
"Patent." 

145. The term "Gilding" has come to be used in- 
discriminatively so that now it covers all metal leaves 
as well as gold, so that silver, aluminum, imitation 
gold, Dutch metal, etc., are all included in under the 
title, at least in so far as that title applies to the applica- 
tion of the leaf, so that it is perfectly proper for a man 
to say that he is about to gild a surface in aluminum, 
however absurd it may sound to the uninitiated. 

146. a. Gilding in oil on wood and other surface^ 
is the method most usually adopted for gilding any 
kind of a surface exposed to the elements, a size must 
be used to cover all the parts to be covered with gold. It 
will depend upon what the size consists of and of how 
it has been prepared, as to the resulting permanency 
of the work. Where pure gold leaf is used the size is 
protected from the injurious effect of the elements by 
the gold leaf itself, which we have seen, is not acted 
upon by oxygen. 

In order that the gold leaf may be applied easily and 
preserve its full lustre the sizing must be tacky. Tacki- 
ness does not mean stickiness, however, and gold 
should never be applied to a surface that is still wet 
or from which the size can be removed by placing 'a 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 221 

finger upon it and to which it would stick. It is a stage 
which oil painting acquires just before it becomes hard. 
In ordinary oil painting that stage is of very short 
duration and the proper time would be very hard to 
catch so that unless but a very limited quantity of gild- 
ing is to be done, such would become too dry before 
it could be completed and it would not hold the gold 
tightly or if the gilding was done just on the border 
of tackiness, then some parts probably would still be 
too wet and the oil would come through the gold mat- 
ting it and causing it to darken. 

But linseed oil may be so prepared tbat it will hold 
a tack on much longer than it is" usual for it to do 
naturally — even for several days after it has set suffi- 
ciently hard to become tacky, thus allowing ample time 
for the completion of a very large amount of gilding. 
It is prepared in this way: Take shallow dishes into 
which pour raw linseed oil, then cover them with 
cheese cloth to keep out insects and dirt, but not air. 
Place these dishes upon a shelf inside next to a window 
where sun and air will have free access to them — but 
rain must be kept out. A few months of such an ex- 
posure will render the oil fatty — in other words, the 
oil will have been in constant contact with oxygen for 
so long a time that it has lost its power of absorbing 
much more and when painted out thin, even when 
driers are used in combination with it, it will dry a? far 
as to become solid, but it will take a long time before 
it becomes bone hard. 



222 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

When a supply of fat oil has been obtained it should 
be bottled and kept for future use. It should be tried 
by itself to know how long it remains in good con- 
dition for gilding when used alone, than with various 
quantities of liquid driers to know how long it will 
take before it is ready for gilding and how long it re- 
mains in the proper condition. This description and 
mode of preparation will hardly suit the man who has 
a job of gilding to do in the near future, but he should 
take care to prepare some of it, for if he does not, he 
will have to depend upon such as all supply stores 
handle ready prepared and none are as good — certainly 
none can be any better than that which he can prepare 
for himself. The ready prepared fat oils of the stores 
come usually in three varieties : The quick fat oil size 
that will dry in twenty-four hours ready for gilding 
and hold a tack five or six hours. The medium fat oil 
size which suits the majority of gilders best of any, this 
usually dries in 24 to 30 hours ready for gilding and 
will hold a tack for twenty-four hours or longer. The 
slow fat oil size which requires 36 to 48 hours to dry 
fit for gilding and will hold a tack for several days. 
This is too slow for any purpose except upon very large 
surfaces and where the greatest solidity is desirable as 
the slow fat oil size has but little if any driers added 
to it and as it dries more naturally, it will have more 
life and elasticity to resist injury from the action of 
the elements. 

b. The surface to be gilded should have become 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 222 

very dry by exposure to the atmosphere for several 
weeks after it has been painted and should be perfectly 
free from tackiness, for if it is not in such a condition it 
will probably hold the gold in many places where it is 
not wanted to stick. The surface should be well 
cleaned with soap and w^ater and afterward rinsed with 
clean water to free it of any greasiness which may have 
gathered upon it from any cause. If it lays with its 
flat side up it should be sprinkled over with bolted whit- 
ing which should be well rubbed over it. Gold will not 
stick to it and such a surface being flat and whitish 
makes an excellent ground to size up with size which 
has not been colored up as that sometimes makes it 
specky, unless great care has been taken in preparing 
it. The size will show blackish and shiny. If the ground 
is very dark or the gilding is done on the side of a wall 
where the whiting cannot be used, a little chrome yel- 
low^ medium ground in oil should be added to the size 
and after having mixed it thoroughly, should be 
strained through some fine cloth. Previous to sizing 
such part it will pay well to go over all the parts 
adjacent to where the gilding is to be done with a 
freshly cut raw Irish potato, cutting off a fresh surface 
as needed. There will be a thin film of its juice left to 
which the gold will not adhere. After this is dry 
which will require but a few minutes the sizing can 
proceed. It should be applied with a camel hair brush 
and laid on evenly ; in running lines care should be taken 
10 make them true and even sized without ragged edges 



224 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

and to bring them to the ends perfectly square. It is 
proper attention to these details that marks the work- 
man from the botch. It is now a matter as to whether 
the size used was a quick or a slow one as to how long 
the gilder will have to wait before laying the leaf but 
under the greatest temptations of hurrying up, he 
should hold his peace and wait till it has reached the 
full stage of tackiness as it is then only that he will ex- 
perience no trouble nor difficulties in laying his leaf 
properly. 

c. There can be several quick sizes made which 
answer the purpose fairly well, especially if the gilding 
upon it is not expected to last forever. Japan (so 
called) gold size thinned with half its bulk of turpen- 
tine or the same mixture of quick drying varnish and 
turpentine, can be used for a quick gilding size; but 
as it has already been stated the gilder is sometimes 
sorely disappointed in not having caught the very short 
time when the size was in a proper condition to re- 
ceive the gilding and then he will have had all his pain 
and labor for nothing. 

After all there is little to be gained and very much 
to be lost by using any of the quick sizes and nothing 
but a case of absolute necessity and hurry will justify 
any one in taking such risks. The fat oil sizes can be 
quickened so they can be used over twenty-four hours 
after they have been applied. That is quick enough 
and then they lay in condition for several days. 

147. For gilding in water colors usually one should 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 225 

prepare two kinds of sizes — one that will permit of 
burnishing and the other which will make the gold 
look flat or matt it, as the gilder's technical name for 
it. 

The burnishing size is made from pipe clay and 
plumbago to which a small quantity of mutton suet has 
been added while they are ground up on the slab. 
These sizes require to be prepared as wanted and should 
be thinned with glue water of medium strength. 
There is so little gilding been done in water colors at 
the present time, that it will be better to buy it ready 
prepared when wanted as it will save the trouble of 
preparing it every time it is wanted. Those are spe- 
cially prepared so as to keep and probably have anti- 
septics added to them which prevent the suet from 
becoming rancid and ill smelling. This size takes on 
a good polish and will burnish, which operation should 
be performed with an agate burnisher. 

The second or matt size and Armenian bole, and is 
also thinned with glue water as stated for the previous 
one. It too can be bought ready prepared for use and 
this is much more convenient than preparing for one's 
self every time it is needed. It will not burnish and 
can be relied upon to dry ''matt." 

148. More water color gilding is done upon picture 
frame molding and room molding than upon anything 
else and all things else put together. 

Picture frame makers use whiting sized up with glue 
for the purpose of filling and surfacing their moldings. 



226 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

They gve them an indefinite number of coats as some 
forms require more than others, which they continue un- 
til they obtain a good body to rub on and this they pro- 
ceed to do. This levels up the surface of the moldings 
smoothly and fits them to be burnished. They use both 
the burnishing and the matt size and they apply 5 or 6 
coats of it, which are rubbed smooth after each coat has 
dried, when they are ready for gilding by simply apply- 
ing water to the molding with one hand and with the tip 
holding the leaf letting it down to where the water will 
carry it level on the molding, the water acting in much 
the same way as when gold leaf is applied to glass in 
glass gilding. When dry the gold is either burnished or 
remains matt according as to the size used. It requires a 
little practice to become ef^cient as to the proper way to 
handle gold for this work. One must acquire a certain 
deftness of motion in order to be able to do the amount 
of work which is considered a day's work in that trade, 
and the only way to gain this experience is by constant 
practice. 

GILDING ON GLASS. 

149. This kind of gilding is used mainly by sign 
painters and more will be said under that heading, as 
there are several ways of using leaf on glass which apply 
to sign work exclusively. But all styles and modes used 
for applying gold to glass require the same sizing which 
is that kind of glue known as Isinglass. This glue is 
very thin and nearly as transparent as glass and as much 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 227 

at least as mica, so it will not dull the gold when coming 
between it and the glass. It should not be made too 
strong either as then the gold will not burnish so well. 
A small piece the size of a nickel or a quarter of a dollar, 
should be soaked up in cold water until it has absorbed 
all of that of which it is capable, then it should be 
melted in warm, but not boiling, water which should not 
exceed much over a pint in quantity, to which should be 
added about a gill of grain alcohol. It should be 
strained through very fine silk cloth into a bottle which 
should be labeled and from which it can be used until ex- 
hausted, as the alcohol it contains will keep it from sour- 
ing. 

The glass to be gilded should be washed very clean 
with soap and water, rinsed wth clean water and again 
sponged with clear alcohol and dried carefully. This 
will remove any greasiness, fly specks or any other dirt, 
leaving the glass clean, and through which the gold will 
appear full of brilliancy and at its best. 

The designs to be gilded should be roughly sketched 
upon the outside so as to act as a guide in applying the 
[^old and to show the gilder if enough has been put on to 
afterward paint his design upon. Gold leaf is very frag- 
ile and much of it, even in the book before touching it, 
will be found either with small pin holes or even larger 
ones through which light can be readily seen and 
through which the paint used in backing it will also show 
through, for the above reasons it is always best to give 
a double coat of gold leaf. As soon as the first coat is 



228 Modern Painter's^ Cyclopedia 

dry, which Is, say, half a day or more, if there is no 
hurry, the second coat can be put on in the same manner 
as the first, which is to keep the surface of the glass well 
wetted with the isinglass size just ahead of the appli- 
cation of the leaf which should be transferred from the 
book with a gilder's tip. (See Fig. 32.) If sufficient 
size is on it will flow the leaf perfectly level on to the 
surface of the glass. Owing to the much wettings which 
the underparts receive, it should always be commenced 
at the top and the application continued downward, 
taking care to allow about 1/16 of an inch lap to insure 
a close fit between the pieces of gold. Where the mem- 
bers of the design are small and not closely clustered to- 
gether it will be well to cut the leaves up to the required 
width with a small margin allowance of it, but if the de- 
signs are clustered close, then it will hardly pay to cut 
the leaf up and it can be applied in full. The second 
coat is applied over the first in the same way. 

As glass gilding is usually done inside, there is usually 
no difficulty in protecting one's self against draughts of 
air, but sometimes it may be necessary to do so and 
screens should be put up to prevent it. A gilder's cush- 
ion which is simply a board through which a round 
handle to hold it up by is nailed some strips of felt should 
be glued on the upper side of it and upon that a chamois 
skin. All around it except in front a strip of stif¥ 
leather should be nailed on the side and one-third of 
the back part of it should be hooded. The gold leaves 
can then be stowed away underneath it, protected from 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 229 

air and can be pulled out with the tip upon the front part 
where they can be straightened and cut up with a gold 
knife into the required size. This gold knife need not, 
in fact should not, be sharp and it need not be pressed 
down upon hard as that would uselessly injure the 
chamois skin, it should be used like a saw, with a for- 
ward and backward motion, otherwise the gold will be 
ragged edged and will stick to the blade. 

The gilder's cushion can be bought ready made, but 
any one can make one for himself without being much 
of a mechanic, either. It is needless to say that its use is 
not confined to gilding upon glass, but that it is useful in 
oil gilding on wood, or in water color work as well. 

The design which is desired to appear in gold on 
glass should have been drawn upon a piece of manilla 
wrapping paper and holes pricked through it with either 
a tracing wheel or a needle, so as to allow it to be 
pounced upon the gold previous to backing it up with 
paint, as it will furnish the proper outlines for that op- 
eration. The paint should be mixed from coach colors 
ground in japan or varnish, but never from colors 
ground in oil ; they should be thinned with varnish and 
turpentine about half and half of each. It is best to give 
two coats of backing and this should be mixed exactly 
as directed for the first. When thoroughly dry the sur- 
plus gold can be washed off the glass. The backing 
coats of paint preserve the design from the water, but 
the gold which has not been coated over with it will 
wash off. If the sizing was strong, the water used in 



230 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

the washing should be warmed and then it will soon soak 
up the glue sizing so that it will come off. In washing 
surplus gold off of glass the water should be applied with 
a soft sponge only, as anything harsh might damage the 
clean cut edges made with the backing. Many begin- 
ners are in too great a hurry to wait until the backing is 
hard enough and commence the washing too soon, with 
the universal result that the edges curl and the perfect 
look of the work is damaged. 

BRONZING. 

150. Bronzing is not gilding although its main ob- 
ject and purpose is to create an impression in the mind 
of others that it is. It is a sham, but such a sham as 
false teeth and other false things which have become so 
common, that, notwithstand that no one is fooled by 
them it is broadly done and admitted as a matter of 
course. It permits the vanity common to human kind, 
a mild sort of outlet in making believe something that 
nobody believes. It enables the lady to buy a loc store 
plaster of paris statue to be daubed over with another 
IOC worth of gold (?) bronze, and made to represent 
an ormolu worth loc worth $50.00. La Fointaine in 
one of his fables tells of an ass who thought of scaring 
all the other animals he was chumming with — taking a 
lion's skin and dressing himself with it to procure the 
effect he desired but he had miscalculated the length of 
his ears nor did his bray correspond to the roarings of 
the genuine, so that no one was fooled after all. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 231 

Bronzes are to be found in all colors imaginable, and 
in such when used to produce certain metallic reflections 
in colors otherwise not obtainable in decoration they 
have a legitimate and even artistic look to them, and the 
ironical sayings just indulged in at their expense is only 
directed at their misuse in trying to imitate something 
which it is not. They are made from all sorts of com- 
poundings of metals, powdered glass and what not. 
The processes some of them undergo, are carefully 
guarded, so that the public usually is not invited into the 
manufacturer's sanctum sanctorum, especially when he 
has hit upon a happy combination which permits him to 
control the market upon it after a demand has been cre- 
ated for it. The cheaper inferior sorts quickly tarnish, 
but the good grades of it are remarkably permanent 
(some of them) and it is of these and of the manner of 
their preparation and of fixing the permanency which is 
kept as secret as possible. Chemists may find out their 
composition but the manner of keeping the fade out of 
them, is beyond the power of analysis. 

Bronzes are sold according to their fineness at least 
all the ordinary sorts are. Bronzes sell at from 50c per 
pound to $8.00. No doubt but that a good portion of 
the price paid for the higher grades by the consumers 
goes to the manufacturers to pay for the "know how.'* 

151. Bronzes may be applied with any kind of a 
size that carries a little tack so as to hold it on. If an 
object is to be bronzed all over, the size can be put on 
as a paint coat would be over it and when it has set suf- 



232 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

ficiently to have a tack, the bronze powder may be 
dusted on to it or better rubbed over it with a piece of 
cotton batting which has first been dipped in the bronze 
powder. In that way there will be little or no waste of 
the bronze. If only a certain design in bronze is to ap- 
pear upon the surface the object should be carefully 
washed and cleaned free of grease spots for if any tack 
caused by greasiness remains the powder would adhere 
to it. The oil, japan or varnish sizes must be put on in 
the same manner as related for gilding. But there is a 
better way and a much safer way and that is to mix the 
bronze powder with a good vehicle which will bind it on 
the same as any other pigment. Many manufacturers 
put upon the market bronze sizing japans, etc. ; some are 
fair but many worthless. The best known and mostly 
used bronze sizing to be used for mixing those with it, 
is called ''Banana Oil" of a strong, pungent, disagree- 
able odor of that fruit. For those who can stand that 
odor it is the best there is, as unlike the japans it leaves 
the bronze with a full undulled metallic luster which is 
as bright after mixing as it was before, which cannot 
be said of the others. In fact it is mainly for that reason 
that objects which are solidly bronzed are sized all over 
and the dry powdered bronze applied over it — in ordei" 
to preserve the full metallic reflection. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 233 

QUESTIONS ON GILDING AND BRONZING. 

143. a. What is said generally of the use of gold ? 
b. How is gold leaf made? 

144. a. How many kinds of gold leaf are there? 
b. How is gold leaf packed ? 

145. Is the term "Gilding" applicable to gold 

only ? 

146. a. What is said of gilding in oil? 

b. How is it applied? 

c. How are quick sizes made and used? 

147. How are water sizes made and used? 

148. How do picture-molding makers prepare them 

for gilding? 

149. How is gilding on glass done? 

150. What is said regarding bronzing? 

151. How is bronzing appHed? 

GLAZING. 

152. The technical term "Glazing" is in itself a 
very good description of what the operation it desig- 
nates consists of, so that its name is appropriate. 

Glazing, to painters, has a double signification, es- 
pecially to such who conduct a general business and 
who are glaziers as well — but to the coach painter, deco- 
rator or artist it has the signification which is given 
it here. It means with them the application of a coat of 
paint, giving to an already painted surface an artificial 
look of transparency and depth which appears some- 



234 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

what as if the previous coating of paint had been cov- 
ered over with a sheet of glass — hence the name. 

It imparts to pianted surfaces an undescribable look 
of depth and effect which can be obtained in no other 
manner. As stated before the glazing coat must have 
another one of solid color under it. It must be made 
up with a transparent lake, or some of the transparent 
colors, or with a solid color which has been made trans- 
parent artificially. 

These glazing colors need not always be of the same 
tone as that of the solid color over which they are 
placed, and some of the richest effects are produced by 
glazing certain colors with a lake of a widely different 
tone. But some very pretty effects are obtained by 
glazing over colors with a glaze coat of a color of the 
same order, but of a different tone of it; for instance, 
for a carmine glaze a solid English vermillion coat is 
given, which when followed with a carmine glaze par- 
takes of the character of both, the vermillion tone being 
reflected through the transparency of the- carmine 
glaze, but the carmine itself also showing its own par- 
ticular richness of tone. Thus a double tone is really 
produced.^ This is very pleasing to the eye, and this is 
why this effect is being used upon all first-class carriage 
work other than black. This is imitated by a blend of 
solid colors for cheaper work, but, like all imitations, it 
falls far short of the genuine. 

In carriage work the glazing coat follows immedi- 
ately after the last coat of color has been put on and just 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 235 

previous to the safety coat of varnish used to decorate 
upon. 

Decorators use glazing colors also, and for the very 
same purpose as the carriage painters do : that of pro- 
ducing certain depth of tones which they could not ob- 
tain in any other way. 

Artists, likewise, are very familiar with the use of 
glazng colors and have recourse to it on many occa- 
sions. 

QUESTION ON GLAZING. 

152. Give a description of glazing. 

GRAINING. 

153. Graining is not a very old art and it Is very 
doubtful if it was known at all two centuries ago. It is 
very true that artists had occasion to represent various 
woods upon pictures, but only in so far as the wood 
represented was necessary in the make up of their pic- 
tures — not as graining. Graining in a commercial way 
as it is known today was, therefore, unknown previous 
to the time related, and the artists who imitated woods 
upon the canvas had no idea as to how the grainers 
execute their work, nor of its methods, and such a 
knowledge would have been useless to them as a pic- 
ture would have been nofield where such could have 
been practical. 

Graining began to flourish about the commencement 
of the eighteenth century, and from that period until 



236 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

the middle of the nineteenth it increased greatly until 
the first class grainer became an mportant character in 
all communities where such existed, and their renown 
usually spread all around them. Such as had a wide 
acquaintance, and grainers were never slow in blowing 
their horns, were sent for quite long distances from 
their home towns. The British Isles — England, Scot- 
land and Ireland — seem to have produced the best and 
most renowned grainers. The Continental countries 
of Europe, especially the more southern, had the best 
of Great Britain in the production of good colorists and 
decorators but that country bore the palm in its grain- 
ing and the men who did it. The traditions which have 
been handed down and reached our times give accounts 
of the feats of the renowned ones who had made en- 
viable reputations during the first three quarters of the 
last century, which ends the flourishing period of that 
art. It very suddenly came to an end about the middle 
of the seventies with an occasional spasmodic revival, 
which did not last long, however. 

Without a doubt, this was due to the introduction of 
hardwoods in house construction. The supply of white 
pine finishing lumber giving away about that time, its 
cost began to rise up so high that it became as cheap or 
cheaper to use hardwoods for the purpose. As the 
hardwod is usually better than the imitation the skill of 
grainers became less and less needed, and with the re- 
sults that the great grainers of the past have few if any 
successors in the present generation. The discrimi- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 237 

nating customer of ''ye olden times" was willing to 
pay a pretty good price for the graining of a double 
front door and vestibule or a library, dining-room, or 
even a parlor, hall, etc. ; that would beat some neighbor 
because good graining was then regarded as an art— - 
which it really was. It deserved good remuneration 
and it received it as the artist does — not at so much a 
day— but for the artistic effects produced, regardless of 
the time consumed. For no one but an artist could re- 
produce the woods in such natural imitations that it 
frequently fooled good judges of woods. 

The great diffusion of wealth since that time, too, 
has been another factor militating against graining be- 
cause it has enabled the great middle class to procure the 
genuine wood in place of the imitation. So high priced 
white pine finishing lumber plus the high prices hereto- 
fore paid for artistic graining made the imitation come 
higher than the natural wood, and the cheap, hurry-up 
kind of graining could not hold out sufficient induce- 
ments to tempt artists to devote their life work to do 
this cheaper class of work : there is little wonder that 
such were deterred from adopting it as a calling, and 
that the field is so bare of really good grainers. 

But a reaction is taking place now which promises 
to advance this branch of work again. It must not be 
expected that it will ever reach the high planes of the 
past, but the first class grainer today finds that room for 
his skill is increasing. This, no doubt, is due to the 
fact that it is now the universal practice of finishing 



238 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

flats, etc., in varnished yellow pine and that that sort 
of a finish does not satisfy owners nor tenants after a 
few years, as they darken and become very dingy. The 
only remedy is painting them over every year, or grain- 
ing at a little greater expense at the start, but much 
cheaper in the end, as it need not be renewed yearly to 
be in good condition. 

There is, therefore, a good future in sght now for 
good grainers and this art is bound to grow into favor 
again. Possibly there may not be so much oak done as 
formerly, although that will still remain at the head of 
the list, but mahogany and maple for bed rooms, with 
the former for anywhere, as its place is suitable to any 
room is even now having quite a run, and while it is 
a bit dark, its richness of color lightens it up and that 
is overlooked on that account. 

It is not intended to give a lengthy account of "how 
to do graining," but the subject is of sufficient import- 
ance to warrant giving enough details as to the ''how" 
to proceed to grain all the principal woods. 

THE TOOLS NEEDED. 

154. Oval or flat wall paint brushes to paint the 
ground coats with (see figs. 3, 4, 5). Some partly 
used oval varnish brushes or any other fair sized wall 
brushes, not too nearly worn out to be stiff or scrubby. 

Oval varnish brushes 4 to 8° (see fig. 15), some mot- 
tiers (see fig. 29), floggers (see fig. 28), fantail over 
grainers of various sizes (see fig. 2y), bone-headed bad- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 239 

ger hair blenders (see fig. 33), with a good assortment 
of lettering camel's hair brushes for putting in veins; 
also a line of various sizes of sable artist's brushes for 
fine detail work. 

Sponges of various sizes and texture. 

Rubbers for wiping out. 

A set of steel graining combs. Fig. 44. 

A set of rubber graining combs. Fig. 45. 

A set of three rubber graining cylinders. Fig. 46. 

A set of rubber graining rollers or rubber spring. 
Fig. 47- 

Sectional grainers as shown below. 

A check roller for putting in weather checks in oil. 
Fig. 48. 

Some clean, soft cotton rags. The above are the 
essential tools. No doubt the professional grainer 
may have some pet tool or another of his own inven- 
tion which he may want to put into the list — but the best 
of graining can be done without any other. The piped 
overgrainer, etc., have been cut out of the list as un- 
necessary; also some forms of mottlers. 

THE MATERIAL USED. 

155. For paintng the grounds suitable for the 
graining of the various woods upon the following list 
of pigments required is given : white lead is usually the 
principal pigment used for the base of all light-tinted 
grounds, and to that is added the colored pigments re- 
quired to produce the right tints. These are : Venetian 



240 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

red, Vandyke brown, raw and burnt umber, raw and 
burnt sienna and ivory, all to be finely ground in lin- 
seed oil. 

For thinning: raw and boiled linseed oil, japans and 
varnishes. 

For graining in oil the above named oil colors 
thinned properly can be used, or graining colors all pre- 
pared, ready for thinning, can be bought for almost any 
of the woods, and in light or dark tones of them. 

PREPARING THE GROUNDS. 

156. Break up some white lead ground in oil rather 
stiff in a little linseed oil, add to that the pigments 
which are named under each wood for the preparing of 
the right ground for them. These pigments, finely 
ground in oil, should be thinned much more than the 
lead, previous to their being mixed with it ; stir the mix- 
ture well to insure the bottom of it being equally as 
deep toned as the top. Do not add too much pigment 
all at once, but add them very slowly until the tone 
wanted is obtained. The ground color being ready, it 
should be thinned with raw linseed oil and turpentine 
sufficiently for application. A little drying japan can be 
used also to insure proper drying. If two coats are 
necessary, which is usually the case, give the first one 
with more oil than turpentine, and the last one with 
more turpentine than oil so as to have it semi-flat. 
For graining in water colors the grounds of all woods 
so to be grained should be a little flatter than for grain- 
ing in oil. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 241 

There is a great variation in the same kinds of natu- 
ral woods as to their color when finished and varnished 
so that a man can hardly err if he comes anywl.\ere 
near to what it should be. No two grainers would se- 
lect from a line of tints the same shades of them for the 
graining of any given wood. Of course there is a limit 
— but it would be very hard to define it. In trying to 
match some natural wood in the same room, always 
make the ground for graining about as light as the 
lightest parts of the wood shows, and when the top 
graining color is wiped out, it will show an average tone 
of that of the natural wood it is called upon to imitate. 
For practice one should have a few sample boards of 
various toned woods and by a proper selection of 
grounds and grainng colors, he will soon be able to 
judge at sight of the right shade to make for any sort 
of toned wood. 

Below is given a few simple directions for the selec- 
tion of colors needed in making grounds. The tone and 
depth of shade must be left to the judgment of the one 
who prepares them. 

LIGHT OAK. 

Whit 'i lead for base. Raw sienna or French ochre. 

DARK OAK. 

White lead for base; raw sienna; raw umber, some 
little ivory black if required for as dark a shade as an- 
tique oak. 



242 Modem Painter's Cyclopedia 

GOLDEN OAK. 

White lead for base, raw sienna or ochre and a tritie 
of burnt sienna to redden it. 

WALNUT. 

White lead for base ; Vandyke brown or burnt umber 
ochre ; Venitian red ; a trifle of ivory black. 

MAHOGANY. 

White lead for base; ochre and Venitian" red. 

CHERRY. 

White lead for base; raw sienna, tinged with burnt 
sienna. 

MAPLE. 

White lead; add just enough raw sienna to make it 
an ivory white. 

SATINWOOD. 

Requires a ground of about the same tone as stated 
for maple. 

ASH, CHESTNUT AND SYCAMORE. 

Requires the same kind of a ground as a medium oak 
does. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 243 

ROSEWOOD AND DARK MAHOGANY. 

Venetian red for base ; orange chromo, yellow ochre 
and burnt umber. It may be required to lighten it up 
with a little white lead. 

The above are about all the woods that are imitated ; 
yet it may be necessary sometmes to match something 
different than the ones named as in a room finished in 
hard pine, and where a closet or addition is made from 
white pine or cypress and one has to grain it to match 
the rest of the room. It will be an easy matter to make 
the right ground by following the rule given as to the 
lightest tone shown by the natural wood and the top 
graining color will be easily picked out. 

PAINTING THE GROUNDS. 

1 57. If the house is new, proceed to prime it with an 
all oil coat with a little white lead in it ; when dry putty 
it up and follow with a coat of color suitable for ground 
for the wood to be grained over it; this second coat 
should be middling heavy and well rubbed out. It 
should be thinned with half oil, half turpentine. When 
dry, sandpaper it and it will be ready for the third and 
last coat. This, like the preceding one, should be a 
suitable tone for the wood to be grained; it should be 
thinned with J4 Hnseed oil and ^ turpentine. When 
dry it should present a smooth, uniform egg-shell gloss 
or just a trifle more gloss than that. 

Old woodwork that has been painted or varnished 
a reasonable number of coats, not to exceed seven or 



244 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

eight, will be safe enough to work upon, but, if, as 
is frequently the case, it has had from a dozen to twenty 
coats or more, as in some tenement houses one finds 
them, it is better to remove the old paint as there is 
great danger of blistering if painted, overgrained and 
varnished. When it is not necessary to remove the 
paint, two coats of ground color is enough to make a 
good solid surface to grain upon; otherwise it should 
be treated as stated for new work. 

GRAINING OAK. 

158. Oak is one of the most beautiful of our native 
woods and it has such a wealth of variations that it 
takes a pretty good head to remember them all. This 
is the reason why probably so many grainers, without 
exception, adopt some styles of it; which, while not a 
single one will be a duplicate of a-ny other which they 
may have grained before, will have a certain family re- 
semblance with all of them because they cannot help 
working along certain grooves which are peculiar to 
themselves only, and which one who is at all familiar 
with their style of graining will recognize at once, and 
some will go so far as to infallibly give the name of 
half a dozen grainers who may have done as many 
rooms on the same jobs, if acquainted with them. It 
is the same as a handwriting expert would do and no 
more. The sign writer cannot .hide his style of work 
either. So, if a good grainer is recognized in his work 
he need not be ashamed of it. 



. Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 245 

Oak is grained in water colors and in oil, or in com- 
binations of the two. Some grainers excel in the one or 
the other, but rarely in both. In either ways of grain- 
ing it is divided up into heart growths and in quarter- 
sawed. In color it varies in the natural tones of it, 
and greatly so in the many dyes of it, whch are fads, and 
which the grainer can adapt his colors to— the coloring 
having nothing to do with the manner of graining it. 
Besides the heart growths and quarter-sawed oak, 
there are some root growths and the pollard oak both 
of which differ very much from the two first. There 
is so much variety and choice in these that there is only 
the embarassment of the choice from such. 

The beginner who has just started to learn graining 
should procure as many veneers as possible in all vari- 
eties of growths of it to familiarize himself with them 
by copying them for practice. The above advice holds 
good and applies with equal force to all other kinds of 
woods. There is nothing equal to it for the purpose of 
learning their variations, and a few dollars invested in 
such will be money put in a savings bank at a high rate 
of interest. 

OAK GRAINING IN OIL COLORS. 

159. Under Paragraph 155 the material required 
for graining oak in oil is given and it is stated there 
that the colors can be bought ready prepared for thin- 
ning, or that they could be prepared from colors in oil 
by the grainer if he so desired. 



246 Modern Painte/s Cyclopedia 

The professional grainer who does nothing else can 
prepare his own megilp, as the old English grainers 
call the prepared graining color, to better advantage 
than one who probably may not be called upon to do 
a job of graining again for weeks; such can use the 
ready prepared graining colors in oil to better advan- 
tage than to make up the little he will use on his one 
job. As every manufacturer of colors mixes his own 
graining colors according to his own formulas, for best 
results in using them the grainer should become well 
acquainted with their several differences in working so 
as to know how to use them rightly, and when he has 
found the one which he can work to the best advantage 
with, he should stick to it. 

It requires some little time to prepare them for one's 
self. The colors should be pure, rich-toned and as 
transparent and fine ground as possible. Beeswax, 
which has previously been cut fine and soaked in tur- 
pentine for 12 hours, will dissolve it at a very low heat 
in that and can be incorporated readily with the thinner 
oil color, which has been warmed also. Take care not 
to put too much in it, about the value of a teaspoonful of 
the wax to a half a pint of the thinner color. The color 
itself should be thin, with J4 raw linseed oil plus a 
trifle of driers and }i turpentine. Frequently the 
graining color has to be applied too thin to comb or 
wipe out well in order that the ground may not be coated 
over too dark; in order to remedy that, fine, bolted 
whiting, which has been well triturated with linseed oil 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 247 

should be added to the color, and then it may be ap- 
plied heavier with little danger of making it too dark 
as the whiting makes it more transparent. 

It is then ready to be rubbed in, the technical name 
used for the aplying of it upon the ground coat. This 
can be done by the grainer himself, but he will usually 
prefer to have a man known as the rubber-in to go 
ahead of him and leave him to do the graining. A half- 
worn, oval varnish brush makes a good tool for its ap- 
plication, but it can also be done with any other kind 
of brush of fairly good size that is not too new. The 
rubber-in should put it on equally all over, but not too 
heavy for it to run when combed or wiped out. Again, 
it must not be rubbed in too dry as it would not wipe 
out well. If the colors have been well tempered and 
thinned there will be no difficulty in so doing. The 
panels should be done first, then the inner stiles, then the 
upper, middle or lock rail, bottom rail, finishing a door 
with the long side stiles. 

The grainer will proceed to wipe out and to comb 
his panels to suit the style of graining he proposes to 
execute. Directions as to the ''how to do that" would 
never teach one how to proceed. The beginner should 
at least see some grainer at it to form an idea of how it 
is done. Some use their thumb, covering it with a 
clean rag to do their wiping out ; others again make an 
artificial thumb out of rubber, which they also cover 
with cloth, sliding that along as the work proceeds in 
order to always present a dry, clean surface to the 



248 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

ground about to be wiped; if this is not done the color 
will slide along in ridges which will give the graining 
an unnatural and forced look. 

For the cheaper graining the use of graining rollers 
has largely displaced hand work in graining oak either 
in oil or water color This, however, applies only to 
plain growths. Quarter-sawed oak will have to be 
done by hand as the rollers will not do this right — at 
best where they are used much of it will have to be 
finished by hand. These rubber rollers will do the 
graining wonderfully quick and a great many variations 
of heart growths can be made with them when they are 
properly understood and worked. 

i6i. The advice given above as to the rubbing-in of 
colors and of graining them by wiping or with graining 
rollers is applicable to all kinds of graining in oil where 
the graining is done by wiping out; therefore it will 
not be necessary to repeat it over again under each 
wood. Should the reader forget let him turn back and 
read these directions over again. 

162. Graining oak in water colors is very much 
different than the preceding. For the graining colors 
one should procure them either dry, or, which is prefer- 
able on account of their greater firmness, ground in dis- 
temper or water. They are found for sale put up in 
small glass jars with a tin top cover at all supply stores. 
The color should be taken out of the jar, put into a 
clean tin can and thinned with beer to a proper working 
consistency, and they should be frequently stirred up 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 249 

while being used as they settle much faster than colors 
in oil do. If beer is not handy a very good binder for 
them can be made by using J4 vinegar and }i water 
with a little brown sugar dissolved in it, or a weak glue 
size; in short, most anything which has a gelatinous, 
sweetish tack when dissolved. 

To grain heart oak growth for the better kinds of 
graining it should be done by hand. Run the panels 
over with the check roller, using some dark color — 
either raw or burnt umber or ivory pink, according to 
the color of the oak to be grained ; then proceed to pencil 
in the veining with a camel's hair lettering brush of 
suitable size, taking care to use the badger hair blender 
freely while the color is still wet or else it will be too 
late and the unblended veins would be harsh looking. 
The blender should always be used outwards from the 
growth lines — never blended inward. Only run a few 
lines, therefore, before blending them, and proceed 
thus until all the panels have been done. The rails 
and stiles can be done plainly combed or veined with a 
fantail overgrainer, taking a dry one and using it over 
the lines to split them while wet, instead of a blender. 
The water color can be sponged on and the rubber 
combs used on it while wet. 

The rubber graining rollers can be used as easily or 
even better over water colors than over oil. The panels 
should be sponged over with the color the same as the 
stiles and rails and the rollers used while wet. A little 
practice will soon enable the operator to turn out neat 
work with them. 



250 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

For quarter-sawed oak, sponge the color over the 
panels, comb and proceed to wipe out the champs or 
flakes with a chamois skin doubled over the thumbs 
or an artificial rubber thumb. This can be as well or 
better done after the color has set; it will be nec- 
essary, however, to wet the chamois skin and to go over 
with that the flakes which will need finishing with a 
dampened rag afterward. A very nice effect is to touch 
up a few with the graining color and to put in a few 
dark flakes with a camel's hair brush which make a 
pleasing variation. 

The better way is to grain quarter-sawed oak in oil, 
however, and when dry to overgrain it with water 
colors, putting in the dark flakings where wanted and 
in burled and knotty growths, to line up gnarled veil- 
ings and emphasize knots. 

Some of the finest and most natural-looking grain- 
ing of quartered oak can be done by combining oil and 
water color work. 

When dry both oil and distemper graining of oak 
can be improved by judiciously shading the tone of 
colors used, but it must not be overdone as then it will 
appear ridiculous. 

163. Oak root and pollard oak graining may as well 
be bracketed together as to the graining for both are 
gnarly growths and are best done in water colors. Oak 
root resembles a hugh sponge full of little round open- 
ings or circles with a system of fine veins intermingling 
among them, some parts being very close together; in 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 251 

others again being separated from each other by a few 
inches of vein veinings. Pollard oak is very similar, 
the unevenness of the surface being caused by cutting 
over the branches of the trees at the head for a number 
of years until an abnormal growth of gnarled projec- 
tions are the result; these sawed into veneer produce 
what is known as pollard oak. The knots in pollard 
oak are larger than in the roots where really there are 
no knots but the appearance of circular openings re- 
sembling them where the circling veining has been cut 
through by the saw. The ground for oak root or pol- 
lardized oak is best made in several shades or tones of 
the ground color as this will greatly help the graining; 
it should be put in in clumps according to the graining 
which is to go over it. The grainer who is to do the 
work should make his own grounds to suit what he has 
laid out in his mind's eye. The graining is done with a 
sponge and blended as the work proceeds; most of it 
can be characterized with the sponge, to be after- 
wards emphasized with the camel's hair brush and fan- 
tailed overgrainers. The colors used should be very 
near, or at least in touch with that used on the stiles 
and rails, otherwise if there is too much contrast the 
work will appear incongruous. 

All water color graining should be oiled soon after 
the completion of the graining as that will preserve it 
against harm, for after oiling it will be permanently 
fixed — becoming, in fact, oil graining. 

164. What has been said under oak graining re- 



£52 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

garding the use of water colors and their application 
with a spong-e and camel's hair pencils should be re- 
membered as all other woods done in distemper are 
treated with them in the same manner, barring the dif- 
ferences between them in color and form of veining. 
This difference the grainer can readily adapt his colors 
to, and the style of his graining to suit the difference of 
forms. Where there is a real difference in the manner 
of using them, this will be noted under each wood and 
the same explained. 

WALNUT. 

165. At one time there were few double front doors 
and vestibules in our Eastern seaboard cities which were 
not grained in imitation of walnut — usually with burled 
walnut panels and the rest in plain black walnut with, 
possibly, the lock rail veined. Halls, libraries and 
sometimes parlors were also grained in that wood, and 
then all at once it disappeared. The introduction of 
hardwood doors did it, and where an imitation in grain- 
ing was substituted it became golden or some other kind 
of oak. Walnut, being such a dark wood, is not suited 
to all places as its somber aspect is not conducive to 
cheerfullness. The Italian or English walnut is not 
quite so dark as our American black walnut and the 
burled markings are so pretty that more of it should be 
done than is the case today. 

166. Walnut is usually imitated in water colors or 
in a combination of water colors and oil. For either 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 253 

methods it should be stippled first. This is best done 
by applying some walnut distemper color (either Van- 
dyke brown or burnt umber), with a brush or sponge, 
and by beating it upward with the flogger (see fig. 28). 
This divides the color into little short-like pores, which 
that wood is filled with in all its growths but the burled 
and with more prominence in the American than in the 
Italian. The burled walnut is done in the same manner 
as related for the graining of oak root and pollard oak, 
the arrangement being somewhat different, however, 
and the grainer must know ho\^' to bring out the details 
so as to make the imitation look natural. 

CHERRY. 

167. There is quite a variation in the coloring of 
this wood and much more in the colors it is grained in 
than in the natural wood itself. Some people are not 
satisfied with its rather plain and non-assuming charac- 
ter, and are not satisfied with anything short of the 
color of its fruit ! This is really ridiculous, but they will 
tell you : ''Why, no more so than masquerading oak 
with a green or blue stain," and how can one blame them 
when that is tolerated ? The natural cherry wood has a 
very plain growth with quite a few pores showing 
through, which should be stippled in with a color com- 
posed of raw sienna, burnt sienna and burnt umber, but 
which should not be made nearly as strong colored as in 
walnut as they show very much more subdued and 
lighter. The veining is not very prominent either, the 



254 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

veins being separated far apart, but are fine-lined, for 
all such woods it is better to mark out the veinings with 
a pencil of the right color, which, in this instance, is 
one made of raw sienna and burnt sienna. These pen- 
cils can be bought at most of the supply stores and are 
catalogued in artist's supply houses. There are some 
fifteen or twenty different tints made of them. They 
are encased in wood ; the wood being colored with the 
same color as that inside of them it is easy to pick out 
the right shade at sight. 

MAPLE. 

1 68. Maple is one of our most beautiful woods and 
well deserves the use made of it in house construction, 
especially for the wood work of bedrooms, for which it 
is so well fitted. The veining in plain maple is very thin 
and simple and it owes its chief beauty to its mottlings. 
Its pores are very small and not sufficiently prominent 
as to require them to be taken into consideration in 
making an imitation of that wood. The veining, as 
stated for cherry, is fine-lined and of but little promi- 
nence, and is made best with a proper colored pencil or 
with an artist's brush and raw sienna in distemper. The 
ground should be nearly white. 

Curled maple is very richly marked with markings 
called mottlings, of a rich darker color than the rest 
of the wood and is done by using the mottler and water 
colors and blending them with the badger hair blender. 
It can be imitated in oil but will not look so rich. Bird's 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 255 

eye rt.aple is the richest of all, and it, too, is best imi- 
tated in water colors. Raw sienna darkened just a trifle 
with raw umber to kill its too great yellowness is best 
for the graining. The mottlings having been put in, 
it is the practice of some to dip the end of their fingers 
in the graining color and to put in the eyes by pecking 
their fingers against the ground. The above is easy 
but is not nearly as good by long odds as the following : 
Take a fine-pointed red sable artist's brush and put 
them in — not by dabbing them in solid but by making 
small circles with it for the natural bird's eye has usually 
an open center. After these have been put in their 
proper places, and this is very important and nothing 
but a close study of the natural wood will teach one 
where they really belong, proceed to put in the veining 
with a proper colored pencil as stated for plain maple 
when it will be ready for varnishing. Bird's eye or 
mottled maple might be imitated in oil colors but it 
takes much more time and is more difficult as well — • 
and when finished would not look as well. 

ASH. 

169. Ash is grained in much the same way as oak 
heart growth. The color of the ground is very much 
the same. The growth is more regular and somewhat 
coarser than that of oak. It is easily imitated with the 
rubber graining rollers. It can be grained in both oil and 
water colors — the first by wiping out and the latter by 
penciling on the veining. The variety of it known as 



256 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

''Hungarian Ash" has a very peculiar growth which 
looks as if some one had blowed in the lower part of 
the log and the veining had been swelled out in circles 
more or less oblong in form. This wood is the most 
showy of the family and like the plain heart growth is 
best imitated in water colors. 

SYCAMORE. 

170. There is but little of this wood imitated by 
graining. Why that is so is hard to tell. There are in- 
dications that more of it will be done in the future than 
in the past as sycamore lumber is being used more now 
in house finishing than formerly, and justly so, for it 
has fine and peculiar markings all its own. These mot- 
tlings are small and irregular all over the growth. 

It is easily imitated in water colors with a sponge and 
blender. The ground coat should be about the same as 
that of dark oak, just a trifle lighter. The graining 
colors are raw sienna and raw umber. It can be easily 
imitated with the rubber graining rollers intended for 
quarter-sawed oak, rolled over quickly over water colors 
and well blended, and instead of that name they should 
be called ''sycamore rollers," as they are better fitted 
for that than for the other. 

MAHOGANY. 

171. Mahogany is one of the richest of woods and 
it well deserves the great popularity it now enjoys for 
both furniture and house finishing. It is the richest 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 257 

toned wood of them all and while rich it is not loud; 
even that with the richest of marking is never gaudy or 
suggestive of vulgarity. In shades and tones it runs 
from a yellowish buff with darker brown mottlings to 
a rich burnt sienna red with dark brown and some 
nearly black featherings of great beauty. A wood hav- 
ing such a range of color can have no set tint for a 
ground color and as to the tint that the ground should 
have will depend entirely upon the character of the sort 
of mahogany that is wanted. If a yellow-toned ma- 
hogany is desired the ground will have to be made more 
yellow and lighter toned than for aged mahogany, 
which will require a deeper reddish-toned ground. 
While mahogany can be imitated in oil graining, it is 
much easier and better done in water colors. 

The character of the wood should be sponged in and 
well blended more strongly than for woods of fine vein- 
ing; this will feather out the edges in both directions. 
When blended and dry, the details, if any are desired, 
can be added with either a camel's hair pencil or a fan 
tail overgrainer, and well blended, too. When dry it 
should be coated over with linseed oil and turpentine. 

ROSEWOOD. 

172. Rosewood is a very dark wood and for that 
reason is seldom used in such large a quantity as for in- 
stance a whole room would demand. It is one of the 
most expensive of the woods. Its use is chiefly con- 
fined to piano cases and small artistic objects, and in 



258 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

furniture. As its darkness and high cost prevents its 
being used largely its graining, too, is very limited for 
the first reason given — too dark. Many small objects 
are grained in imitation of it, however, which is usually 
done in factories where they are made. The ground 
for it is about the same as that of dark mahogany, only 
more red. The graining is best done in water colors. 
Drop black applied with a sponge in erratic heavy lines 
to be blended slightly but not feathered as in mahogany, 
then followed with a fantail overgrainer filled with the 
same color ; put in the fine lines which nearly cover the 
w^hole wood, leaving but little, here and there of the 
ground to show through. It is very easily imitated 
when one has a good conception of its character in 
mind; but it is also easily spoiled if its average mark- 
ings are misrepresented. The greatest trouble with the 
novice is that he tries to put in too many details, and 
these in the natural wood never force themselves upon 
the attention, but they have to be closely looked for to 
distinguish them. 

QUESTIONS ON GRAINING. 

153. What is said regarding graining? 

154. What are the tools required? 

155. What material is used? 

156. What is said about preparing the ground? 

157. How many coats of ground color should new 
and old wood receive ? 

158. What is said in a general way about oak 
graining ? 



Modem Painter's Cyclopedia 259 

159. How are graining colors mixed for graining 
oak in oil ? 

160. How IS the graining color in oil rubbed in and 
how is the graining done ? 

161. Is what is related in Paragraphs 159 and 160 
applicable to other woods as well? 

162. How is the graining color in distemper for 
oak prepared and how is the work done ? 

163. How is oak root and pollard oak grained? 

164. Is what has been related of the water color 
graining of oak applicable to other woods ? 

165. What is said of walnut graining in general? 

166. How is walnut grained? 

167. How is cherry grained? 

168. How is maple grained? 

169. How is ash grained? 

170. How is sycamore grained? 

171. How is mahogany grained? 

172. How is rosewood grained? 

HOUSE PAINTING. 

173. House painting is of two very different kinds 
— exterior and interior. 

Both exterior and interior of buildings are painted 
for a twofold purpose : first, as a protective covering to 
the material used in house construction, and secondly, 
as a means of beautifying its surface. 

Under the heading of ''Exterior Painting" (see 
Paragraphs 108 to 120), the reader will find a full 



260 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

explanation as to the best manner of treating all the 
various material used in the construction of houses, 
therefore it would be useless to repeat the same here. 

174. The painting of interiors has also been fully 
reviewed in all the several methods used in doing the 
same, such as in water colors or distemper under the 
heading of "Calclmlning" (see Paragraphs 31 to 38), 
also the same under the heading of *Tresco Painting" 
(see Paragraphs 134 to 142), and in oil under the 
heading of "Flatting" (see Paragraphs 130 to 133), 
also under the heading of "Enameling" (see Para- 
graphs 121 to 129), besides such as is finished in 
"Graining" (see Paragraphs 153 to 172) and "Mar- 
bling" (see Paragraphs 173 to 192). The above cover- 
ing all the various ways used in finishing up Interiors 
will suffice without repeating it and the reader can 
readily find what he is looking for under the several 
headings mentioned. 

QUESTIONS ON HOUSE PAINTING. 

173. What is said of exterior painting? 

174. What is said of Interior painting? 

MARBLING. 

175. The Imitation of marbles and other variegated 
stones is a very attractive and Interesting section of the 
painter's trade — one almost feels like saying art; for to 
produce a good Imitation of them Is artistic. To be 
able, then, to imitate them the student should have a 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 261 

good conception of it formed in his mind ready to be 
transferred by his good right hand by the proper hand- 
ling of the tools that will reproduce what his head has 
conceived upon the surface he desires to ornament. 
Should he spend a whole week in going about from 
building to building, examining good natural specimens 
of marble in the great office vestibules, corridors, etc., 
or in public buildings, churches, in any of our larger 
cities, it would be time well spent with him as this 
would do more to fasten up in his mind a good under- 
standing of their forms and the great variations of these 
in the several marbles which are so profusely used at the 
present time. Reading about them will not learn him 
anything, and he might read till he was gray headed be- 
fore he could have as clear an understanding of them 
as a good square look would give him — at the marble 
itself. 

Nor need this study be commenced over for every 
kind of marble he hears about, nor will he need to 
make a study specially for each kind of marble as the 
grainer has to do to understand the peculiarities of each 
kind of wood, for all marbles, while each has some pe- 
culiarity too, can be in reality divided into two general 
groups : Fissured marble and the other — conglomerate 
marble. 

All the fissure marbles have a great family resemb- 
lance ; the main difference being in the frequency of oc- 
currence and the fineness of the fissures, the more or 
less of their transparency, and mostly in the coloring 



262 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

itself. There are a great many names given to certain 
colored marbles, yet as the chief difference lays in the 
colors used in executing them, this need not worry the 
marbler very much. 

During the week which he has been advised to spend 
in examination of various specimens of marbles he will 
have come to a seemingly contradicting opinion "that 
they are all alike" and "that it is impossible to find two 
pieces of marble a foot square that are exactly alike," 
that is in the fissured marbles, for the solidly colored 
ones need not be considered, so far as being counted in 
— they are not imitated. This seeming contradiction — 
as to their being all alike and yet as being all different — 
lies in that when one color of fissured marbles has been 
well studied and understood, all the others, barring the 
color, will be understood also and their minor differ- 
ences can be readily taken care of. Their variations are 
infinite, however, so that the statement that no two 
pieces are alike is true also. 

176. To make a good imitation of marbles a person 
needs to have an intimate knowledge of colors and of 
the "how to handle them" by blending them properly 
so as to make them appear transparent if he wants them 
so, or solid if he desires it. He will find numerous speci- 
mens of markings and veinings in the natural marble 
that he should not try to imitate because if he did he 
would be laughed at for his pains. Nature misses it 
at times and produces some unnatural looking specimen 
but the marbleizer is not supposed to reproduce them. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 263 

It IS the same in the various woods ; only those of pleas- 
ing- forms are copied and the abnormal should be 
shunned as no one wants them. The pleasing forms of 
marbles are so numerous that if a person was to imitate 
them daily for a lifetime it is doubtful if he would 
reproduce any former design; yet, as in graining, every 
person will adopt certain forms and peculiarities and 
unconsciously he will put on some of this individuality 
into his work and these "personal marks" will be recog- 
nized by other painters who are familiar with his pe- 
culiarities, and a look will suffice them to enable them 
to name the person who did the job. 

176. The tools needed for marbling are few. Some 
brushes to lay colors with ; these may be of any shape, 
but as only rather small surfaces are laid over with 
colors at one time, they should not be too large. Some 
few flat and round fresco bristle liners; some camel's 
hair pointed lettering brushes and a few artists' brushes 
to put in fine lines and outlining with. Some bristle 
blenders and some badger hair blenders ; some feathers 
to put in fine veins with. Sponges for water colored 
work and some soft, clean cotton rags. The material 
used for marbling in oil is : white lead, which is usually 
the base or principal color in the foundation of all the 
lighter tints of marble, and for coloring it or for using 
singly or in connection with other colored pigments; 
raw and burnt sienna ; raw and burnt umber, Oxford 
and French ochre; Indian red, Prussian blue, ivory 
black, etc. As marbles can be found in nearly all colors, 



264 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

it is hard to say where the naming* of the list of colors 
used should stop as neairly all of them can be put to 
use. 

For marbling in water colors all the same colors, dry 
or ground in distemper, can be used with the exception 
of white lead for which whiting must be substituted. 

By long odds the better way of imitating marbles is 
with oil colors — and the easiest, too. The blending of 
the colors in distemper is very much more difficult to 
do properly, and usually it is used only upon the very 
cheapest of wall work that any of it is ever attempted. 
A person cannot judge rightly of the value of the 
colors used as they dry so much lighter than when first 
put on. It requires quite an expert to imitate marbles 
properly in distemper. Some few do obtain very good 
results in work done in that way, but mostly in scenic 
painting, and their work while pleasing at a distance 
will not usually bear a very close inspection. 

DOVE MARBLE. 

178. The ground for dove marble should be a warm 
gray composed of white lead, lampblack and a trifle of 
red to warm it up. When dry go over it with a trans- 
parent gray made of zinc white, black and whiting to 
give it transparency and further spreading; put in the 
darker gray tones in places where desired ; then blend 
them in with a bristle blender. Then run in the vein- 
ing in white, which blend with the badger blender to 
make them transpairent and look as if disappearing be- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 265 

low the surface. Then finish up by putting in the high 
hghts on the veining with white. This makes them ap- 
pear as if they had continued from below to the top of 
the surface through the transparent ground. The 
painter will find it one of the easiest to imitate. The 
broader veins or layers, as some call them, can be put 
in with the bristle fresco liners and the finer with artists' 
brushes, or still better with feathers dipped into the 
color ; with the feather can also be applied the network 
veining in clumps where they usually center and divide 
out from. It is very quickly done and the quicker the 
better the work will look as hesitation always causes 
veining to be harsh. Far very good work it is better to 
accentuate details with a camel's hair artist's brush to 
put in a trifle of dark shading upon spots on one side 
and to lighten up on one side the lighter shades. This 
helps to produce a more transparent effect to the mar- 
bling. 

As many of the above details are applicable to the 
imitation of all kinds of marbles it will not be necessary 
to repeat them again, so the reader should bear them in 
mind. 

BLACK AND GOLD. 

179. The ground for this marble is black and the 
veining is gold colored as the name indicates. Some 
large veins of straggling character run in zigzag fashion 
in all directions; these are made of yellow ochre, raw 
umber and Venetian red and are to be blended in with 



266 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

the black and gold veining. After the color has set a 
bit, the high light gold veining is put in again but not 
over the first ones which were blended and no attention 
should be paid to them; they appear as if they were be- 
low the ground through the transparency of the sur- 
face. Only a portion of this last veining must remain 
as "high lights," the rest must be carefully blended to 
make them look as if they were gradually disappearing 
and give still greater transparency to the job. 

EGYPTIAN GREEN MARBLE. 

1 80. The ground for this marble is an invisible 
green made of black and yellow. When the ground is 
dry, paint over the whole surface with a green which is 
suitable, putting in the black masses here and there and 
with a feather putting in some of the green in veins 
through these which should be blended. When dry run 
over the work with blocks of black to give it its proper 
character. The white masses should now be put in and 
one side of them should be made sharp by touching 
them up with a camel's hair pencil. 

When stones are cut and polished they are frequently 
so transparent that we seem to look beneath the sur- 
face, and crystallized masses may be observed distinct 
from the substance which forms the matrix. These 
crystalline bodies may present their sides or may be cut 
angularly, thus giving a singular variety of form and 
great transparence to the mass. This is where the 
painter can display his skill by imitating it. The novice 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 267 

will, no doubt, find it difficult at first but perseverance 
will reward him with success. 

VERD ANTIQUE. 

i8i. Black is the ground for verd antique marble. 
Mix in a small can some Prussian blue and yellow ochre 
so as to form a brownish green. Then, with feathers, 
put in the colors — blue and yellow — which blend with 
a bristle brush, afterwards touching up the same with 
blue and yellow by means of a camel's hair pencil. 

This marble is of the same general character as the 
Egyptian, its chief distinguishing features being that it 
is more blotchy. 

SERPENTINE MARBLE. 

182. This marble resembles the above, being some- 
what more veiny and less blotched. There is also less 
conglomeration showing through it. The green is also 
lighter toned but otherwise treat it as described for the 
others. 

BROCATELLO. 

183. The ground for brocatello is a light, warm 
yellow of the same tone as that commonly used for 
sienna marble and is formed of ochre and white lead. 
Take raw and burnt sienna and add enough whiting 
to make them spread out very transparent and glaze 
over the job with it; when this color has set, sprinkle 
it over with turpentine, using a sash tool for this pur- 



268 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

pose. It will cause the color to flow and the yellow 
ground to show through. Then shade the larger hlots 
with a light yellow ochre to show the angular fragments 
and to give it greater depth. A suitable color made 
of Prussian blue and vermillion is then prepared, and 
with a pencil it is used to put in veins around the an- 
gular parts, but care should be taken not to carry the 
dark lines through the blots. 

ITALIAN PINK MARBLE. 

184. This ma>rble is somewhat of the same general 
character as that described under sienna marble, and in 
reality it is only a variation of that. The chief distinc- 
tion consists in its being more rosy in tone and of a less 
yellowish red. The painter can follow directions given 
below, changing the colors to suit this. 

SIENNA MARBLE. 

185. This marble has a great variety of character 
and is also known under a variety of names in many 
places. The tendency now seems to be the placing of 
all marbles of that character together under the name 
of sienna and to designate the color of it wanted. One 
slab will have a dark hue, tending to an umber tone, and 
another from the same quarry will be a bright yellow. 
When it is imitated the ground is made a light yellow. 
After the ground is dry the work should be gone over 
with a transparent yellow made so by the addition of 
whitihg. While the color is still wet the character may 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 269 

be formed with a No. 2 black drawing crayon and the 
same blended with the color with a badger hair blender. 
The painter will now display his taste by choosing the 
proper shades and the placing of his colors which are 
raw and burnt sienna ; raw and burnt umber and Vene- 
tian red with which he will fill up the spaces left open by 
his crayon, when the several colors should be blended 
together. When this is dry the shades should be put in 
with a darker color; then the work should be thinly 
glazed here and there and well blended with a badger 
blender. 

Some painters in finishing sienna spot it with pure 
white. The novice should study this marble well, as it 
is one which is suited to many situations and which is 
nearly always pleasing to look at. 

WHITE VEINED MARBLE. 

186. This is one of the commonest of the marbles, 
and the painter has frequent occasion to imitate it, but 
it does not usually require the services of an expert to 
distinguish between the imitation and the real article. 
As simple as it looks, it is the hardest marble to imitate 
of the whole list of them. The man who can fool any- 
one into believing that his imitation is genuine marble 
can turn out to perfection any of the colored marbles. 

The ground for this marble is a pure white. When 
it has been applied and is dry ; mix white lead and tur- 
pentine, adding some whiting to make it more transpar- 
ent and with that paint over the work. While the color 



270 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

is wet, form the veins with a black crayon and with a 
bristle blender soften the veins with the ground. Sim- 
ple as it is, it is not an easy thing to make it look natural. 

FLORENTINE MARBLE. 

187. The ground for this marble is white lead, 
tinted up to suit with Indian red or Tuscan red and 
black to produce a rather light neutral red tint. Put in 
the veining with burnt umber and burnt sienna, a few of 
each, running in all directions without any show of reg- 
ularity. This veining must be done while the ground is 
wet. Sometimes these veins run in clumps and seem to 
break forth, leaving patches here and there nearly free 
of any veinings, and then suddenly to make a network 
of them as intricate as those upon the rind of a nutmeg 
melon. 

AGATE. 

188. Agate is a conglomerate and really not prop- 
erly a marble, partaking more of the nature of quartz 
than it does of lime formation. As it is sometimes imi- 
tated it is well to place it with the other stone imitations, 
along with jasper, porphyry and other forms of granitic 
formation which the skill of the painter is frequently 
called upon to imitate. The ground for agate is made 
of white lead, and the character of the work is put in 
with a feather, which has been dipped in a transparent 
crimson lake color and blended. When dry it should be 
run over with the crimson- lake in spots and between 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 271 

these put in other spots with a medium tone of green 
made from Prussian blue and yellow ochre, and when 
the work begins to set, it should be sprinkled with tur- 
pentine, whch will cause the three colors to run in all 
directions and afterward they should be touched up in 
places here and there with some of each of the colors 
with a camel's hair pencil. 

RED PORPHYRY. 

189. Red porphyry is of granite formation: it is of 
a dark redidsh tone and the ground should be made 
from Vermillion and black. Sprinkle the ground with 
Vermillion, dulled with a little white lead, taking care 
that it does not run on the ground but present each spot 
separately and distinctively. This done, the work should 
be sprinkled in the same way but with a still lighter 
shade of red. 

SWEDISH PORPHYRY. 

190. The ground for Swedish porphyry is a grayish 
stone color, formed of white lead, black and raw umber. 
The work should be sprinkled in shades of gray in a 
similar way to that stated for red porphyry. 

SWISS PORPHYRY. 

191. This is considered the most valuable on the 
list. The ground is black; sprinkle it with two shades 
of color made from black and red, but the sprinkling 
should be done more liberally than in the two former 



272 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

ones, so that they may run into each other. Afterward 
sprinkle a Htle white over the whole w^ork; the white 
spots should be small. 

JASPER. 

192. Is a fancy stone which is seldom used in large 
masses except by imitation. The ground may be made 
in color that is suitable to the style or color of jasper to 
be imitated or to the situation, but usually it is a gray or 
a yellowish stone color. The ground being dry, paint 
over a certain portion of the work with an opaque color, 
made of burnt sienna and a little Indian red. In about 
half an hour it will be set and then it should be sprinkled 
with turpentine and whiting; a clean brush being used 
for the purpose, and wherever the moisture falls large 
spots will be formed. Then the character must be laid 
out. This is done with a yellowish grey color by intro- 
ducing it among the red masses. The work must be 
then heightened with a pure white color. The peculiar 
ribbon structure or waving line must be afterward in- 
troduced, which is done with the feather of a quill. It 
has the effect of uniting the red and the other colors. 
This is done with pure white lead thinned with turpen- 
tine, a little inside varnish being added to give it bind- 
ing. The work is afterward finished in with a camel's 
lair pencil in light touches. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 273 

GRANITES OF ALL KINDS. 

T93. Granites of any color can readily be imitated. 
Proceed as stated under porphyry. Prepare the ground 
of the predominating color of the granite and then 
sprinkle on the remaining colors so as to spot large or 
small, according as it is wished. 

QUESTIONS ON MARBLING. 

175. What is said of marbling in a general way? 

176. What should a person be required to know to 
become a marbler ? 

177. What tools and material are needed? 

178. How is dove marble imitated ? 

179. How is black and gold marble imitated? 

180. How is Egyptian green marble imitated ? 

181. How is verd antique marble imitated? 

182. How is serpentine marble imitated? 

183. How is Brocatello marble imitated? 

184. How is Italian pink marble imitated? 

185. How is sienna marble imitated? 

186. How is white veined marble imitated? 

187. How is Florentine marble imitated? 

188. How is agate imitated ? 

189. How is red porphyry imitated? 

190. How is Swedish porphyry imitated? 

191. How is Swiss porphyry imitated? 

192. How is jasper imitated ? 

193. How are granites imitated ? 



274 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

OILS AND DRYERS. 

194. There are several different kinds of oils, each 
having peculiar properties belonging in general to their 
class besides each one of the class having some distin- 
guishing traits belonging to them only and not to the 
others. All classes of oils are useful to man for some 
purpose or another. For the painter's use, however, 
there are only two kinds which are of interest to him 
as related to their business and employed by him in his 
work, to wit : The ''fixed oils' and the ''volatile oils." 

THE FIXED OILS. 

195. The fixed oils have the property of solidifying 
during the process of their drying into a rubber-like 
gum, which is waterpoof. This property is invaluable 
to the painting of exteriors, as without such a quality in 
the liquid used in the application of paint, it would be 
impossible to hold the pigment of the paint upon it and 
its stay there would be limited to dry weather, as rains, 
moisture, hail and beating storms would soon make 
short work of it and wash it off and the pigment having 
nothing but its own adhesiveness to hold it on, would 
soon all be at the bottom of the house, leaving the build- 
ing in no better condition, if as good, as it was before 
the painting was done. There are no liquids or sub- 
stances that will render liquids waterproof, known at 
the present time, with which pigments could be mixed 
and applied over surfaces with as vehicles of them which 
will render the hard service which is demanded of them 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 275 

and which will turn itself into a waterproof covering" 
but — the fixed oils. 

It is not the purpose of entering* into any great details 
in reviewing the fixed oils, and some of them will not 
even be mentioned, as they are either too scarce or ex- 
pensive to be thought of for use in painting. All fixed 
oils have the same general properties characteristic of 
their class in a greater or lesser degree — which is, that 
they absorb oxygen from the atmosphere and that dur- 
ing this absorption they become solidified into a rubber- 
like waterproof gum; but besides this general charac- 
terizing property of the class which belongs to this 
group only, they have each of them their own. 

All fixed oils gain in weight from the oxygen which 
they have absorbed, yet the gain is nearly, but not quite, 
ofTset by the evaporation of the moisture contained in 
•them and the loss of some certain volatile ethers which 
are evolved during the wonderful process of their dry- 
ing. 

The drying of the fixed oils is a very interesting study 
for those among the painters who have a love for knowl- 
edge, and to such the study of such works as "Chev- 
reuil's" on the drying of oils, will well repay them for 
the trouble. A good knowledge of the material they 
use will greatly help them to understand the why and 
wherefore of things and no one can know too much 
about his own business or any of the material used to 
carry it on. 



276 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

LINSEED OIL. 

196. Of all the drying fixed oils, no others pos- 
sess as many of the qualities that are desirable in them 
for the purpose of a paint vehicle and as a preservative 
of surfaces nor to as high a degree of perfection as Lin- 
seed oil does. 

Besides that it is so much superior to the others in 
quality, it is far cheaper than the next one to it in cheap- 
ness. All things being equal, that of itself would suf- 
fice to make it the most popular, so that when the fact is 
taken in consideration that its qualities are superior to 
the others in all but a few immaterial points for outside 
painting at least, and for interior painting excepting in 
a very few instances, such as white enameling, etc., it is 
no wonder that it holds first place and stands far above 
them all. 

It was stated in the preceding few lines that linseed 
oil was the cheapest of all the fixed oils and so it is. 
Linseed is a Frenchified word for flaxseed, which it is, 
and it is known under that name all through its growth. 
The change to linseed only occurring after the oil has 
been expressed from it upon the same principle that a 
calf becomes veal after its death. Flax is one of the 
most useful of all the plants to the human family. When 
it is wanted for its fiber, however, it is grown in a dif- 
ferent manner. Then it is sown much more closely to- 
gether, which prevents it from going to seed properly, 
and to branch out, when it is pulled and from such no 
seed is obtained. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 277 

For seed it is sown farther apart, which gives each 
plant a chance to spread and make a good head for 
seeds and to become a perfect plant fitted to ripen its 
seeds properly. This makes its fiber much coarser and 
it unfits it for all the finer uses made of that raised 
specially for its fiber; for the weaving of linen cloth, etc. 
The coarse linen tow which is now extracted from the 
flax straw is of but little commercial value. 

To make good oil — that is to say, to make the very 
best possible out of it, the flax should not be cut until it 
has commenced to ripen its seeds and such is the way 
that it is harvested in India, where labor only costs a 
few cents per day. In that far-ofif country the flax is 
pulled by hand and all the manipulations are hand work. 
The seed consequently is very plump and rich in oil, the 
juices having been perfectly elaborated by the natural 
process of ripening. This seed from India produces an 
oil that is highly prized by varnish makers and all 
others who must have linseed oil at its best and as good 
as can be made. It is for this reason that Calcutta seed 
linseed oil is so highly esteemed and that these varnish 
men, who are the best judges of linseed oil in the world, 
are willing to pay more for it than the price asked for 
the home grown linseed oil. 

But the system of harvesting flaxseed in India cannot 
be practiced here in the United States nor in the South 
American countries where it is also raised, not even in 
Russia, where a good quantity of flaxseed is grown. 
Such slow processes would raise the price of the seed 



278 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

away beyond the limit. With the large acreage which 
the American farmer devotes to it, the harvesting of 
flaxseed would be a hard problem to solve, in fact, it is 
one that bothers them now under the rapid methods 
they employ, and what would it be, if they were to un- 
dertake the slow ways of India ? In America the flax is 
cut by machinery, in the same manner as wheat — but if 
the farmers waited until the seed had begun to ripen to 
cut it, much of it would shell out and be scattered over 
the field and be wasted from the violent shaking it re- 
ceives when struck by the harvesting machine; so to 
prevent this loss, it is cut while the seed is in the dough 
as it is called, just previous to its hardening. There can 
be no question but that it becomes solid and that it 
ripens after the cutting, but it is not so good for it as it 
does not receive the juices which it would have drawn 
from mother earth during the finishing of its ripening, 
and much of it is cut so green that it produces an infe- 
rior seed. When the season happens to be a dry one, 
the seed produced is generally fair, but when, as it some- 
times happens, it is rainy and muggy, much inferior 
seed is the result, which contains more than the average 
of mucilaginous matter and it cannot be as good for 
painting purposes as it should be. There is no question 
then that it would pay owners of buildings being painted 
on the outside, to pay double the price asked for the in- 
ferior oil for a good oil to spread the paint upon them, 
than it would to use the poorer — but they will not, and 
who is to blame if poor painting is done ? 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 279 

It is not intended to convey the idea that all American 
linseed oil is poor ; far from it, for some very good oil is 
made here, but only that much inferior seed is raised 
and sold and that such will not make good oil. 

Much poor painting is done — all are aware of that — 
some contractors use snide oils knowingly, and again 
some have doped linseed oil palmed off upon them, and 
again some careful men have an occasional job go 
wrong, for which they rack their brains to find a cause 
for ; but seldom do they ever think that it lays where it 
really does — the quality of the linseed oil. Good lin- 
seed oil is the life of paint. 

THE MANUFACTURE OF LINSEED OIL. 

197. Not SO very many years ago, nearly every lo- 
cality had its linseed oil mill, its wool carding machine, 
etc. ; many other industries that have all taken wings 
and left for the great cities, and there are still plenty 
of men who are living to-day who will recollect them. 
These local presses bought the seed raised in the neigh- 
borhood, crushed it, expressed the oil out of it, tanked 
it and when settled, sold it far and near. The name and 
reputation for honesty of the manufacturer was one of 
the biggest assets of the concern — but those days are 
gone. These old time crushers did not get near as 
much oil out of the seed then as is done now and if some 
of them could go to the present day linseed oil factories 
and see what is done in the way of extraction, they 
would hardly believe it possible. Then, under their 



280 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

crude system of crushing the seed under the chasers and 
of pressing it with little better machinery than that 
used by the cider mill next door, perhaps. 

The principles of making linseed oil is much the same 
to-day as then, but their application is different. There 
is no waste of anything under the new system — but that 
of the quality. We hear and read a great deal about 
cold pressed oil, etc., but with the powerful hydraulic 
presses in use it does not matter so much as to whether 
the flaxseed meal has been slightly heated or not as to 
the resulting quality. The only real difference will be 
that heated seed will make a somewhat more highly col- 
ored oil from some of its coloring pigments being re- 
leased by the process, but that this injures the binding 
quality of the oil is very doubtful and much of this col- 
oring matter is thrown down during the settling pro- 
cess. Considerably more of the mucilagenous parts of 
the seed is expressed under the new system than under 
the old and how much more of this is held in solution by 
the oil or how much of it is precipitated during the set- 
tling and clarifying process is the question, and it has 
not been satisfactorily answered so far. 

Linseed oil after having been pressed out in the days 
that are gone, used to be put into settling taiiks and 
good old father time set to work to do the precipitating 
of all the impurities to make it limpid and fit for use. 
This took several months. The foots and settling re- 
mained behind and — pure linseed oil was the result — 
such oil as old time painters loved to work with and they 
did good work with it — work that stood. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 281 

These old time retrospects are not colored by fancy 
or sentiment — no, they are not wanted to come back 
again and the present has much to be proud of — but its 
methods certainly do not give us as good linseed oil as 
into tanks where it is agitated with sulphuric acid 
as that which we used to get. 

Linseed oil today, after it has been expressed, is run 
into tanks where it is agitated with sulphuric acid, 
usually, which hastens the precipitation of its impuri- 
ties. Some mills use chemicals to produce this precipi- 
tation and in one week of such treatment, the oil is lim- 
pid and ready to be barreled — but is it as good as that 
settled naturally by 90 days of tanking? 

The above is the most usual method of obtaining the 
linseed oil from flaxseed, but there are other methods, 
one of which only will be described as it seems to have 
a sensible way of producing oil, it differing in every re- 
spect from that of expressing. It is called the "perco- 
lation process." 

By the percolation process the oil is not extracted by 
expression but is dissolved from the seed with a solvent 
in the following manner : After grinding, the meal is 
conducted to the top floor of rather high buildings, 
through the several stories of which to the top floor 
also, has been built percolators reaching from top to 
bottom. Into these the flaxseed meal is thrown and 
solidly packed ; then benzine is poured in at the top and 
percolates tjirough the flaxseed meal, dissolving all the 
oil in it on its flow downward and holding it in solution 



282 Modern Painter^s Cyclopedia 

carries it down to the bottom with it ; there it flows into 
pipes hich are heated. Benzine being volatile, vaporizes 
at comparatively low heat, escaping in that shape into 
condensing pipes and drums where it is cooled and re- 
turned to its liquid state to be used again and again in 
the same manner — as an agent of extraction. The oil 
itself is entirely freed of benzine and is conducted to 
clarifying tanks where it receives the usual treatment 
to clear it. Benzine no doubt dissolves some other sub- 
stances, such as coloring matter, etc., that is undesirable 
in a paint oil — but it has no affinity for mucilage and 
other baneful substances which are expressed by the 
other methods and no doubt but that during the process 
of clarifying much of these foreign substances are elim- 
inated. Some claim that some of these remain which is 
not thrown down and that it injures the oil — it may be 
so; as most of these statements seem to orginate with 
people whose interests are connected with linseed oil ob- 
tained the other way may it not be possible that many 
of these may have been sugegsted by self interest? 
While not Missourians, there are several persons who 
have used both who affirm that they would have to be 
shown if there was any material difference between 
them in the use they have made of them in their practical 
painting experience. 

Linseed oil is at its best in the "raw" state only, and 
it is only in that condition that intelligent painters use 
it and that it can be recommended for the painting of 
exteriors of buildings or even for the interiors. In its 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 283 

raw state it is elastic, which permits it to expand and 
contract along with any kind of surfaces it is spread 
over, be they wood, brick, metal or stone. Raw linseed 
oil is also penetrating, unless in very cold weather, when 
it is viscid, which enables it to reach down into the pores 
of any material it is applied upon, with the exception of 
glass — as all other material used in house construction 
is more or less porous even to iron and steel. Linseed 
oil painting thus forms little rootlet like connections 
with the material it is placed over, which gives it a firm 
anchorage to its under surface and from which it can 
be forced only by moisture or the decay of the linseed 
oil in time. Pigments having a great tenacity between 
their atoms will usually pull themselves off from sur- 
faces in the shape of scales when they have been used in 
the priming and these scales will show these rootlet-like 
projections very plainly. 

BOILED LINSEED OIL. 

199. Boiled linseed — that has been boiled — which 
is far from being the case always, has lost its elasticity 
by the process of boiling it and nearly all its penetration. 
Boiling it, turns it into a varnish and really it partakes 
more of that character than that which has been de- 
scribed under raw linseed oil. As it cannot contract and 
expand itself to accommodate the nature of the surface 
it covers, it must in time give to the strain given it by the 
contraction" of the surface it is painted over, with the 
result that it cracks to accommodate it. White lead. 



284 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

which the reader will recollect is not given to scaling on 
account of its atoms having no affinity for each other, 
which chalk off with raw oil after that has decayed — 
will crack and scale when mixed with boiled oil and all 
painting of any kind done with it will do the same ; only 
more so. 

Then again as nothing short of an expensive chem- 
ical analysis can possibly determine its purity the door 
is practically thrown wide open for the possibility of its 
adulteration. Few retail dealers buy it in a pure state, 
although they may believe it to be so and buy it for such. 
Many others, knowing that the probabilities of obtain- 
ing it pure are rather slim, and that some jobbers dope 
it or bung hole boil it, conclude that they may as well 
have a finger in it themselves and to know just how 
much of it they have in it, so they usually take out 5 or 
10 gallons of the raw oil from a barrel usually averag- 
ing 50 gallons and fill it up with 10 gallons of benzine 
dryers, a cheap manganese wash, dear at 25 cents per 
gallon in barrels lots, which gives the oil the proper 
color and drying qualities of boiled oil and uncon- 
sciously perhaps, but surely, the customer is benefitted 
thereby as that oil so treated is fully as good, if not 
better, for painting than pure boiled oil — tJiat has been 
boiled. Bung hole boiling as the above described sub- 
stitution is called, has become a byword common to 
every user of linseed oil. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 285 

REFINED AND BLEACHED LINSEED OIL. 

200. As the refining of oil bleaches it and the bleach- 
ing refines it, these two designations should go hand in 
hand as they practically mean one and the same thing. 

Linseed oil contains some coloring matter in solution 
which is extracted with it from the flaxseed, either by 
the hydraulic system of pressing or that of percolation, 
as it was seen. It parts with a portion of it while it is 
settled but still holds a quantity of it after that. Now 
certain light tones of colors and especially the zinc 
whites, which require much more oil to grind them than 
white lead, are apt to gain a yellowish tinge from ordi- 
nary oil. Varnish manufacturers too, who put out ef- 
forts on all sides to make as light and clear toned var- 
nishes as possible, must get rid of most, if not all, this 
coloring matter contained in the oil used in grinding 
such colors, or in preparing varnishes. Such either buy 
the oil already refined or refine it themselves. 

The process of refining and bleaching linseed oil is 
simple enough ; it is : Further agitation of the oil with 
sulphuric acid and exposure to sunlight for a few days 
in shallow vessels covered so as to exclude dirt, but ad- 
mitting light, but little if any air, as that might have a 
tendency to fatten it. 

Linseed oil which has been treated so is nearly as 
light toned (not quite) as poppy seed oil, but it will not 
nor cannot take the place of that and nut oil for artists' 
use because — all linseed oil, no matter how carefully 
coloring matter may have been extracted out of it — 



286 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

will darken with time. Even the others do, but not 
quite to the same extent as it will. This darkening of 
oil is what causes the darkening of old oil paintings. 

Let linseed oil's faults be what they may, there is 
nothing better made for painting purposes, and it is 
better and stronger than any other of the fixed oils. 

POPPY SEED OIL. 

201. As its name indicates, this oil is the product of 
the poppy plant. Some varieties of it produce very 
large seed heads and are raised in fields in a commercial 
way for its seeds. They are harvested in baskets as the 
head ripens — which they do not do all at once, so that it 
requires several goings over the field to get them all in. 
This is a slow process, hence this paint oil can never be 
cheap. The seeds are crushed, the oil drawn out by 
pressure in much the same way as related for linseed 
oil. The oil produced is very light and clear, and it is 
highly esteemed by artists as it does not turn dark with 
age as linseed oil does, although it will too, (in a lesser 
degree.) 

It does not dry very readily, nor has it the tenacity 
of linseed oil, and as its cost is so much greater, there is 
little danger of its ever becoming a very dangerous rival 
and its use is mainly confined to artists. 

The main uses are in the grinding of zinc white, but 
even for the grinding of this the use of it is waning — 
even artists are beginning to shun it as the cleaner tone 
obtained from its use applies to whites only, and as with 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 287 

time It darkens also, there is but little gained by its use 
after all, especially for those who are working for pos- 
terity. 

NUT OIL. 

202. Nut oil is produced mainly from the meats or 
kernels of the English walnut, so called no doubt be- 
cause most of them come from Italy, France and Spain. 
These meats are crushed and the oil expressed in much 
the same manner as stated before for linseed oil. This 
oil is very light and clear with just the slighest sus- 
picion of yellow and is the cleanest toned that can be 
had for mixing with pigments and for that reason is 
most highly esteemed by artists who cater mainly to the 
sale of their painting to the present and do not care to 
have their work endure forever, for unfortunately the 
old adage holds true for it : 'Tretty is who pretty does," 
it has not got the tenacity of linseed oil and the decay of 
the oil will in a comparatively short time loosen its hold 
upon the pigments. So with a prohibitive cost in the 
first place, which artists only can stand — as a little goes 
a long ways with them — there is little danger of its ever 
being as much as spoken of in general paint shops. 

THE VOLATILE OILS. 

203. These oils are so named because of their hav- 
ing great evaporating qualities. When exposed to air, 
especially under heat, which accelerates the process of 
evaporation, they vanish entirely away in vapors. All 



288 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

the volatile oils have an extremely pungent small which 
is peculiar to each, and by which each class of them is 
easily recognized by the nose to any one accustomed to 
their use. Their action in connection with paint and its 
application is to render it more fluid. They can be 
mixed in any proportion with linseed oil and are perfect 
solvents of it. 

204. They are indispensable to the proper mixing 
of paints and without them it would be impossible to do 
many kinds of painting. By their admixtu**e they ren- 
der linseed oil more fluid, more penetrating, helping to 
make it set more quickly. This quicker setting renders 
possible the application of heavy pigments which would 
otherwise quickly separate from linseed oil alone as that 
would not commence to set for a much longer time. 

The volatile oils have no binding properties what- 
ever, and their beneficial use for outdoor painting is al- 
together mechanical as adjuncts to linseed oil and for 
specific purposes only. When enough has been used of 
them to accomplish the purpose intended not a drop 
more should be added — for then they become harmful 
instead of beneficial. 

205. They are chiefly used for interior painting and 
it is well that it is so, as being in a manner protected 
they can be used in much larger quantities than for out- 
door painting and for flatting instead of being the ad- 
junct to linseed oil, they are the principal thinner and 
linseed oil enters the compound simply because of its 
binding property and not because it is desirable. All 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 289 

through this manual has been given under their proper 
headings, directions as to how the various coats of paint 
should be mixed with them. 

Volatile oils are extensively used in the preparation 
of varnishes and for tempering them for application 
when they need it. They are good solvents of the fixed 
oils and having detergent properties are useful to clean 
paint brushes, etc. 

TURPENTINE. 

206. This is the product of the conifers — all pine 
and resinous evergreen trees contain it in some form, 
but our own southern long leaf yellow pine produces 
more of it than all the other pines of the whole world 
put together. The trees are scarified and the crude tur- 
pentine exudes through the wounds, gathering at the 
bottom of the cut out and hollowed in grooves called 
''the box." This crude turpentine solidifies into a soft 
gum which is distilled when the spirits of turpentine of 
commerce as we know it is separated from its solid por- 
tions which remain behind as rosin. 

Turpentine is by long odds the most useful of the vol- 
atile oils used in painting. Its odor while very pungent 
is not disagreeable to most persons, and while when it 
is used in large quantities as in flatting, when a person 
will absorb large quantities of it by absorption and 
through inhaling it, it will act excessively upon his kid- 
neys when used in a moderate way or out of doors it will 
not be very likely to injure him. 



290 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

BENZINE AND NAPTHA. 

207. Benzine and naptha are both volatile oils 
which are obtained from the distillation of crude pe- 
troleum oil. They are so nearly identical in composi- 
tion, working qualities and everything else, that they 
are joined together in this review as everything that can 
be said of the one applies to the other also. Their odor 
is extremely pungent and disagreeable to most persons. 
They are very dilutent and their effect and action upon 
paint is very similar to that of turpentine. Few people 
can remain shut up in a room where they are used in 
flatting, for few men can stand their fumes long at a 
time. This is their worst fault, and after all this is the 
chief reason why they are not used more extensively 
than they are — without the having to give any other 
reasons which usually are not to the point and which 
cannot be made to stand investigation. The time is near 
at hand when painters will be forced to use them as the 
turpentine fields are narrowing up every day more and 
more and in a very few years there will be little more 
left than will be needed for pharmaceutical preparations 
in compounding medicine and it will have become so 
high priced that it will have to be benzine and naptha or 
nothing. 

It is hoped that preivous to that time, chemistry will 
discover some remedy to remove or disguise the 
"smell." It is to a great extent minimized now, and the 
barrel heads say : deodorised benzine, etc., but there is 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 291 

room for still more of it to kill it entirely and much re- 
mains to be done. 

OIL OF LAVENDER (oiL OF SPIKE.) 

208. This is used only in china or porcelain paint- 
ing, where owing to its fatty and lesser volatile condi- 
tion than the others which have just been noticed — it 
prevents the colors from running and gives plenty of 
time for their application. This is never used in gen- 
eral house painting. 

DRYERS. 

209. Linseed oil, unless under very adverse circum- 
stances, would dry naturally. Some pigments when 
mixed with it have the property of rendering it more 
drying and help it to dry more quickly than it would by 
Its lone self — but others again are anti-drying and 
greatly retard the drying of the oil. Again the weather 
conditions may not be propitious to the proper drying of 
the oil, so that when a person has some outdoor painting 
to do unless the weather is fair, settled and warm, he 
will need to use some dryers to hasten the drying of the 
paint as it would not do to trust to luck and the weather 
and have the painting spoiled. 

The above must not be construed as an endorsement 
of the unlimited use of driers in paint. No, far from it. 
There is no one cause why so much linseed oil painting 
goes to pieces in a hurry than can easily be traced to the 
abuse of driers. The word abuse is used purposely and 



292 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

underscored because the proper use of driers is allow- 
able. 

Nearl all the driers in the market today are com- 
pounded from the oxides of manganese and are 
naturally dark colored on that account. They are pre- 
pared and sold under a great variety of names, as japan 
driers, liquid driers and with a host of fancy proprie- 
tary names and at prices where no painter can afford to 
fool his time away in preparing them himself. 

There is a queer thing in connection with the use of 
the liquid driers and it is that a small quantity of it will 
sometimes act quicker than an overdose of it, and that 
when it is used in overdoses it will retard instead of 
hasten the drying of oil. One tablesponful of any good 
liquid drier will be sufficient to dry a quart of paint or 
more. 

There are some special driers prepared for use with 
zinc white — these too are best bought ready for use, 
ground up in paste form, as the time required and the 
special facilities needed for grinding, mixing, etc., are 
not to be had in every shop. 

QUESTIONS IN OILS AND DRIERS. 

194. How are oils useful in painting divided? 

195. What is said of fixed oils in general ? 

196. What is said concerning the production of 
flaxseed ? 

197. How is linseed oil manufactured? 

198. What is said of raw linseed oil? 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 293 

199. What is said of boiled linseed oil? 

200. What is refined or bleached linseed oil ? 

201. How is poppy seed oil produced? 

202. What is nut oil? 

203. What are volatile oils? 

204. What action do they exert in paint ? 

205. Where are they most useful? 

206. What is turpentine and how produced? 

207. What is said of benzine and turpentine ? 

208. Where is oil of lavender mostly useful ? 

209. What is said regarding driers ? 

PAINTING IN OIL ON GLASS. 

210. Most of the painting done in oil on glass is 
that done by "Sign Painters," and as this branch of the 
business will be treated at length in subsequent pages, 
the reader is referred to that subject where he will find 
full directions given for the same. See paragraphs 
275 to 276. 

There is, it is true, some little amateurish painting in 
oil upon glass, but such work stands to true art in very 
much the same relation as "doggerel" verse does to 
poetry. 

On account of the difihculty of judging the effects of 
colors from the back side of the glass where the painting 
must be done in order to produce the solid and enameled 
effect which is the only excuse people can have for doing 
any painting at all upon such fragile material, for if the 
glass be painted on its front side then it would in no 



294 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

wise differ from any other painting done on canvas or 
wood and there could be no excuse given for not using 
those insetad. For painting on glass from the reverse 
side, the subject must be outlined and all the prominent 
dark colors must be put on first, for otherwise they 
would not show if applied over white and other light 
tints ; then when dry the next prominent dark tints and 
others which must be blended into them to make graded 
tones. This is where the great difficulty comes in — to 
blend them properly — even when well done, which is 
seldom the case, it cannot possibly be done as well as 
upon surface work and with its outlines, etc., must pre- 
sent a gingerbread appearance which is in bad taste, to 
say the least, and which will set an artists' teeth on 
edge. Such attempt must always be crude and unsat- 
isfactory. 

QUESTION ON PAINTING ON GLASS. 

210. What is said concerning painting in oil on 
glass ? 

PAINTING A BATH TUB. 

211. The painting of a hath tub, or rather the re- 
painting of them, is not a very difficult operation — but 
the preparing and getting ready for it may be so; es- 
pecialy if the painting is expected to stand any length 
of time. 

The paint on a bath tub is subjected to considerable 
more hardship than any other kind of painting has to * 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 295 

unless it be that done upon steam pipes and radiators. 
The great heat at which hot water is sometimes turned 
on and the suddenness with which ice cold water fol- 
lows it to cool it is very much harder on the paint than 
anything it would have to stand from the elements out 
doors; in order to stand all those extremes it must be 
mixed in an entirely different manner from that in 
which exterior oil painting is done, as ordinary linseed 
oil paint would peel off in no time under the strain it 
would have to bear. 

New bath tubs are painted with a specially prepared 
varnish paint where the pigment is mixed with what is 
called ''baking japan.'' After the painting they are 
placed in an oven and subjected to a great heat which 
causes the japan paint to flow level and this leveling 
frees it of brush marks and causes it to dry very hard, 
nearly as hard as the iron over which it is applied. After 
having gone through this baking process, water and 
heat — such at least as it is subjected to in a bath room — 
have no effect upon it. 

212. But when a bath tub is -repainted the above 
process cannot be employed unless the tub is returned 
to some establishment where they are prepared to do 
such work with ovens sufficiently large to bake the tubs. 
This would be much the best way — but such concerns 
are not to be found everywhere and it is well to know 
what is the "next best" way to effect the repainting of 
it "where it stands in the bath room." The "next best'' 
as in most all other things, is not as good as the origi- 



296 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

nal but answers the purpose fairly well. It will have to 
be mixed so that it will air dry and as no heat can be 
applied which will cause it to flow level it can not be as 
level as in the original painting. 

In the first place all the chipped or loose paint must 
be carefully removed and sandpapered; then the surface 
should be run over with a very stiff bristle brush to re- 
move any dirt which may have found a lodgment any 
where, especialy between the chipped places. The 
whole of the inside of the tub should be now washed 
with a solution of sal-soda which should be afterward 
carefully rinsed off with clean water and afterward well 
dried by friction with dry cotton rags, when it should 
be left several hours to become free of moisture when it 
will be ready to receive the paint coats. 

This is prepared from white lead and turpentine. The 
white lead should be ground in japan as no oil at all 
should be used. Go over the bare spots first of all, in 
order to level up the surface as much as possible; be 
careful to wipe off the surplus color which will find its 
way on the adjoining surface of the paint and would 
make a ridge if not wiped off. It will take two coats of 
the filling to fill these places. These coats dry quickly 
and two or three coats can be given in one day. When 
the filling to fill these bare, places. These coats dry 
quickly and two or three coats can be given in one day. 
When the filling up has been completed, give the whole 
inside of the tub two coats, prepared as for the filling. 
This should make a pretty fair job if the brushing has 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 297 

been carefully done. It will, however, look flat and a 
protecting coat of good varnish must be given the paint. 
It must be a hard drying varnish and moreover it must 
be of light color. This is sometimes difficult to find in 
many localities. Upon the whole it will be much better 
and safer to employ the following system in repainting 
a bath tub : Clean up in exactly the same way as stated 
before, then buy some ready prepared bath tub enamel. 
It is mixed, ready thinned for application with the right 
kind of varnish by the manufacturers, who are usually 
better judges of the right sort of varnish to use than the 
average painter is and these have a reputation to make 
and sustain and they have to use all possible precaution 
in preparing them so as to do all that such a paint is ex- 
pected to do. As some manufacturers prepare these 
bath tub enamels differently from others, each having 
their own formula, it will be best to follow the directions 
printed on the label of each can — and the painting will 
be the better for it. 

QUESTIONS ON PAINTING OF BATH TUBS. 

211. What is said about the painting of bath tubs 
in general ? 

212. How are bath tubs to be prepared and re- 
painted ? 

PAINTING OF STATUARY. 

213. Few persons have any idea of the extent of 
this branch of the painter's art — for it is at least a semi- 



298 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

artistic occupation. Statues in city and country 
churches and statuettes in numberless quantities are 
used in nearly every home, no matter how humble it 
may be, either as religious objects or in the bric-a-brac 
shelf or chimney mantle, besides the ornamentation in 
bed rooms, etc. Some is done in china factories and the 
greater part of the statuary painting is done in Euro- 
pean establishments. Many have commenced the man- 
ufacture of statuary in this country. But it is not so 
much of the painting required in their manufacture 
which will be referred to in this article as the repainting 
of them, as in all our larger cities the repainting has to 
be done again and again, owing to the smoky atmos- 
phere which soon makes them dingy. This furnishes 
lucrative employment to many painters aside from what 
is originally done in factories where statues are manu- 
factured. 

214. The statutes are cast in plaster par is from 
moulds. The plaster having been mixed with fiber 
very similar to well picked oakum but somewhat coarser 
and longer; this is done In order that they may not 
break so readily and upon the same principle that hair 
is added to mortar for plastering. 

After the statue has been cast and well seasoned, 
they must be filled, but previous to the filling it should 
be primed inside with linseed oil. The statue should be 
placed upside down as they are usually cast hollow, they 
should be carefully propped up and guarded from in- 
jury from falling and then linseed oil should be poured 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 299 

into the opening up to the top of it. After an hour the 
linseed oil should be poured back as the statue will have 
absorbed all it is capable of in that time. 

The above applies to busts and statuettes really more 
than to statues as the valuable ones of these are fre- 
quently cast solidly. 

They are then placed upon &. receptacle to drip and 
dry, which will require a week as the linseed oil should 
be raw and used without any drier. 

When dry they should be placed upside down again 
in the same manner as before, being filled with oil and 
should be filled with plaster paris made sufficiently li- 
quid to pour out. But little at a time should be added 
as there is considerable heat evolved during the setting 
and also some swelling, and the statuette might be 
cracked from that cause. Pour a little at a time, wait- 
ing two hours before pouring in any more and con- 
tinuing doing so until it is completely filled up. This 
will make it as solid as if it had been cut out of stone 
and about as heavy. No more plaster should be mixed 
up than can be used at one pouring as otherwise it 
would set very hard and be lost. 

According as to the size of the statues it will take 
from one to three weeks for the plaster to part with 
all its extra moisture and to become sufficiently dry to 
begin the painting. If the painting should be com- 
menced before the drying is thoroughly accomplished 
there would be great danger of its peeling. 

215. The statuettes should now be well rubbed 



300 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

over with a coat of clear linseed oil, brushing them over 
and over again two or three times as the oil will soak 
into them quickly. They should now be laid aside to 
dry and given eight or ten days for the oil to harden 
up thoroughly, when the painting proper may begin. 

The first coat may be thinned with half oil and half 
turpentine and the coloring should be nearly the same 
as that intended for the finishing, but no attention- 
need be paid to any of the details. 

After two or three days' drying the finishing coat 
may be applied. This should not contain more than 
1/5 linseed oil and 4/5 turpentine for the thinner of the 
pigment. About %. ounce of beeswax (bleached) 
should have been previously melted for every pint of 
turpentine used and mixed up with that warmed up. 
This makes a beautiful, soft flat finish with a delicate 
transparency of tone unobtainable in any other way. 
The statues or statuettes are now ready for the details, 
etc. ; and the gilding also should be applied as soon as 
it has well dried, which will take from 24 to 48 hours. 

QUESTIONS ON THE PAINTING OF STATUARY. 

213. What is said of painting statuary? 

214. How are statues and statuettes prepared for 
painting ? 

215. How are they painted ? 



Modern Painters Cyclopedia 



301 



PAPER HANGER S TOOLS. 

2 1 6. One of the most important tools to the paper 
hanger is a good table and supports for it to cut paper 
upon and to spread the paste on it. 




Fig. 49.— Folding Paste Table. 

The above is shown not so much as that some other 
form of pasteboard and tresoles may not answer the 
purpose; but that this is a very convenient and handy 
one which folds up into a small space when not in use. 

The paste brushes shown below will suit the re- 
quirements of any paperhanger. Fig. 50 has a grip 




Fig. 50 — Paperhanger *s Paste Brush. 



302 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



handle and Fig. 51 a slim, oval handle easy, on the 
liand. 




Fig. 51 — Paperlianger 's Paste Brush. 

Under the heading of ''Brushes" see Figs. 25 and 
26, which show two styles of smoothing brushes, Fig. 




Figs. 52 and 53 — Paperhanger 's Smoothing Brushes. 

26 showing one which is a combination tool, having a 
seam roller at one end. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



303 



Seam rollers are shown below in Figs. 54, 55 and 56 
of various forms under the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, 
H, J, K, L, M. 




B 





D 




Fig. 54— Seam Rollers. 



304 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 





ra F; 





H 



Fig. 51 — ^Paperhanger*8 Seam Rollers. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



305 





K 





M 



Fig. 56— Paper hanger'a Seam Rollers. 



306 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Smoothing rollers are indispensible in smoothing 
embossed and other high priced paper as the ordinary 




Fig. 57 — Smoothing Roller. 

.smoothing brush would be apt to obliterate the em- 
bossing. Two kinds are shown in Figs. 57 and 58. 




Fig. 58— Smoothing Roller. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



307 



A good machine to trim paper is useful for the 
trimming of all the cheaper papers and can be made 
to answer fairly well for the better grades also if care 
is exercised in the trimming with them. Fig. 59 shows 
how one is operated. 




Fig. 59— Machine Trimmer. 

Straight edges to trim paper by with the knives, also 
to split same, are usually made of narrow strips of dif- 




tto. I Br«9i Bound Trimmer Striithlcdl* - 



Fig. 60— Straight Edges. 

ferent kinds of wood glued together, 
how they are put together. 



Fig. 60 shows 



308 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



Paper hangers as a rule are very fastidious about the 
shape of the knives they use in the trimming of paper. 
It is a matter of custom and habit which may be grati- 
fied, as our Fig. 6i shows all kinds of shapes of them 



'''■""||l|!|jil,i- .[.yyARPa^^TEr) 

iiiiiiip 




ft A 




B 





Fig. 61 — Paperhanger 's Knives. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



309 



And of the rotary knives an equally large variety are 
shown in Fig. 62 under the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, 
H. 





^liiir 



B 



^^^^^^ 





Fig. 62 — Paperhanger 's Wheel Knives. 



310 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 




E 






H 



Fig. 62— Paperhanger's Wheel Knives. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



311 



An excellent and handy tool to have is a combination 
casing and corner knife such as is shown in Fig. 6^. 




Fig. 63 — Paperhanger 's Wheel Knives. 

Some very handy rotary trimming knives are now 
made which run in a grooved straight edge, which pre- 
vents the wheel from slipping or getting off the track. 




iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiimiimiiiillii 

Fig. 64— Wall Paper Trimmer. 



Fig. 64 illustrates the manner of using them and shows 
the groove -on the straight edge into which they are 
fastened and held. 



312 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



Another excellent tool is the graduated plumb and 
level. Fig. 65 gives a good illustration of the tool. 




Fig. 65 — Graduating Plumb and Level. 



The old fashion plumb bob is also very useful and 
is too well known to need illustrating. 

A few twelve or fourteen quarts galvanized iron 
pails to hold size and paste in, a supply of step ladders, 
ladder trestles and strong 2-inch walking and scaffold 
planks complete the list. 



QUESTION ON PAPER HANGER S TOOLS. 

216. Use the above to refer to as you have need for 
the same. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 313 

PAPER HANGING. 

217. Paper hanging has become such an enormous 
factor in the decoration of interiors as to be used by 
every family in the land from the very poorest shack or 
hut to the palatial residence of the millionaire. It is 
no wonder, then, that it gives employment to such an 
army of men. Probably 95 per cent of all painters who 
call themselves general workmen are paper hangc-s 
also. 

Wall paper certainly is the poor man's friend as some 
of it is so cheap as to be next to nothing per roll. This 
makes it possible for any person having a desire for 
clean and cheerful looking rooms to indulge the fancy 
at a cost so small that it is not a burden. 

Some years ago there was much space taken up in the 
papers about persons having been poisoned by sleeping 
in papered bedrooms and the fault had been laid to the 
employment of arsenic and other poisons in the printing 
of the wall paper. One hears but little of this now, so 
the presumption is that whatever may have been the 
practice of w^all paper manufacturers in the past, that 
now, at least, there are no poisons used in the colors 
used by them. As they have always strQnuously denied 
that they used arsenic when they were accused of it, 
it is a matter of great doubt if they ever did resort to it 
as the purpose for which it might be used can be sup- 
plied at a lower cost by non-poisonous compounds. Hu- 
man nature is much the same in wall paper printers as it 
is in any one else. They certainly would be fools to 



314 Modern Painter^s Cyclopedia 

pay more for doing something which they could all 
know would be hurtful to that business. 

Everything under the sun that has ever been used 
as wall covering is now imitated by wall paper, and 
that so cleverly as to appear to be the very kind of ma- 
terial they are imitating — tapestries, draperies, canvas, 
burlap, buckram, laces, leather — there is nothing or 
no effects which they do not reproduce and the imitative 
powers of wall paper artists is wonderful to behold ! 

The wall paper trade has so systematized and ar- 
ranged things that a good, tasty selection is made possi- 
ble even for people who are color blind. The arrange- 
ment of sample books which show combinations of ceil- 
ings, walls and frieze, all colored and designed purposely 
for each other, are all so good that no one can go far 
wrong in making a selection. Besides these already pre- 
pared tasteful combinations there is a limitless quantity 
of independent designs which give the tasty person a 
chance to select something which will show individuality 
of arrangement, and where he can give his own artistic 
tastes full play in arranging his decorative schemes. 

When selecting wall paper several things should be 
taken into consideration in order that there may not 
be any incongruities. The location of the room as to 
light, the character of the house itself, the prevailing 
tone of the furniture and carpets, and the social position 
of the occupants of the house, etc., etc. 

A sunny room with plenty of light usually requires 
cool-toned paper as warm-toned hangings have the ten- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 315 

dency to add a feeling of increased heat ; this is imagina- 
tive it is true, but existing just the same, and no amount 
of reasoning takes it away, either. 

Likewise, for the same reason, but reversed, warm- 
toned hangings should be selected for rooms which have 
no sunshine and are in constant shadow. The warm 
coloring adds a feeling of warmth. Thus by judicious 
selection an evenly balanced whole will be secured where 
the difference in temperature will not be so keenly felt 
as it would be otherwise. The coloring of the carpets 
may greatly mar an otherwise prefectly combined 
scheme for the walls and these should always be con- 
sidered in making a selection. 

Now, as to the social position, many would say: 
"How can that possibly affect the selection of wall 
paper?" The right of selecting any kind of wall hang- 
ers is not denied to any one for we are all born equal 
and free(?) but sometimes exercising the right may 
render people ridiculous. A man has a perfect right to 
wear a swallow tail dress suit on the street and with 
that put on a chauffeur's cap, but they seldom exercise 
it. So a person earning $12.00 per week who would 
select silk hangings with hand made gold leaf decora- 
tion on it to match a 75-cent-a-yard ingrain carpet 
would have as good a right to it as the man whose 
weekly income is as great as the first earns in a whole 
year — the $12.00 man should not exercise his rights, 
that's all. Happily wall paper has tasteful selections to 



316 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

suit the pocket books and taste of all sorts and condi- 
tions of people. 

218. The proper conditions for hanging paper upon 
the walls requires them to be hard and smooth. If 
they are not so naturally they should be made so — at 
least as near as it is possible to do so, before the hang- 
ing is commenced. 

In new houses and for new work everything usually 
works lovely and easy, seldom presenting any diffi- 
culties and so such need no special mention as to how 
to prepare the walls and are ready for hanging. 

219. If the house has been papered before, it is al- 
ways best to wash off and remove the old paper before 
applying the next coat of it, yet some people will keep on 
hanging paper on walls repeatedly without taking off 
the old. If wall paper is hung anew every year or at 
most, every two years, it would not be especially hurtful 
if two thicknesses of it is left on, provided that it be 
surely taken off before the third one goes on — but 
usually persons who form the bad habit of hanging new 
paper over old hardly ever stop on two coats and the 
habit in time becomes incurable — or till the myriads of 
bacterial colonies breeding all the diseases human flesh 
is heir to — fastens some deadly disease upon a mem- 
ber of the family and sends him to an untimely grave. 
No doubt but that decaying wall hanging furnishes a 
medium through which many a disease germ has been- 
carried to persons who live in houses where coat after 
coat of paper have been put on, one on top of another, 



Modern Painters Cyclopedia 317 

for years and years. Probably all the poison cases we 
used to hear about were due to this same cause — decay. 

The moral carried by the above is : Always take off 
the old paper in a room before hanging the new, that 
is if you value your own or your family's health. 

After taking off the paper the walls should be sized 
over with glue size made antiseptic by the addition of 
a few drops of carbolic acid. If the smell is objection- 
able, by the addition of a few grains of corrosive sub- 
limate, which is still better. This protects the underside 
of the paper from becoming the habitation of visible as 
well as invisible insects and bacteria. 

In very old houses some of the old-time plastered 
walls can frequently be found which are in such dilapi- 
dated condition that one may well wonder why the 
plasterer had not been called in ahead of the paper 
hanger to do patching, which, in some instances, amount 
to as much as a fourth of the whole surface to be pa- 
pered — but the paper hanger is suposed to cover the 
old walls and make them look as good as new. 

All paper hangers should be at least two-third plas- 
terers, too, and carry a kit of plasterer's tools with 
them, at least a pointing trowel and even a large plas- 
tering trowel will be needed to patch up some of the 
"grand openings" on the walls. With the ready^to-use 
prepared plasters, which can now be found everywhere, 
it is not such a very difficult job to fix up walls, after all, 
and they can be gone over in a very little time, ordinar- 
illy. Cracks on plastered walls require more time to fill 



318 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

them properly than bigger holes do, especially where 
they are numerous and small. A preparation of plaster 
paris thinned with glue water will be found best for all 
the smaller openings as that will set slowly enough to 
allow plenty of time to do the work, and there being 
no caustic lime in it, the color of the wall paper will 
not be injured. As soon as the cracks and holes in the 
plastering have been repaired, go over them with the 
size mentioned before and the room is then ready to be 
papered. 

220. Sometimes the paper hanger is called upon to 
hang paper in the back rooms of stores and elsewhere 
where one or more sides of a room are wooden parti- 
tions. Wall paper hung upon bare wood will soon 
crack, as the paper is inflexible and cannot give with the 
wood's contraction in cold, dry weather or its expansion 
during a hot, moist spell. To prepare the wooden sur- 
face so the wall paper will stay on it, they must be 
canvassed over with muslin. The best way to do this 
is to sew together enough widths to cover the side of 
a wall to an opening cut to the proper lengths ; then it 
should be tacked first at the top, then at the bottom and 
sides. Then tack it through the center and elsewhere 
so that it will not bag anywhere, but lay flat. 

Some paper hangers prefer to size the partitions and 
to paste the muslin, laying it on in strips the same as. 
wall paper. This method has the advantage of making 
a solid job of it, but the beading of the boards is likely 
to show through the paper after it is hung over it. It is 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 319 

also more difficult to hang the wet, limp muslin and it 
will require two men to handle the wet pieces — the ex- 
tra man to pull the strip of muslin off the boards until 
the other has brushed it down. 

HANGING THE PAPER. 

221. The paper which is sent on the job is some- 
times machine-trimmed at the shop before it is sent out. 
With a little care in the pasting of it, paper trimmed be- 
fore hand answers very well for all ordinary work; 
but much the better way is to paste the wall paper, fold 
it both ways and trim it with a knife and straight edge. 
These knives come in all sorts of shapes and are shown 
in Fig. 6i. Some paper hangers prefer a rotary wheel 
knife and a good variety of these are shown in Fig. 
62. But the surest of these, and the handiest, too, is 
shown in Fig. 64. 

222. There are many different kinds of paste in 
the market which are offered ready prepared. Some 
are made from flour, steam cooked, and put up in barrels 
and half barrels. Some antiseptic preparation is usually 
added to it to prevent its souring as quickly as it would 
otherwise. The steam cooked paste is put up very thick 
and requires thinning with cold water. It works 
smooth and nice, but it has its faults — the greatest one 
being that when it has to be shipped from a distance 
the freight on the water it conains, and he cost of the 
package, count up heavily, making its cost too high. 

The cooked and dried paste in powdered form, only 
requiring thinning with cold water or even with warm 



320 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

water, are excellent. They keep indefinitely, there is 
no freight to pay for water. They are handy to send 
out on a job, being always ready to be thinned as 
wanted, and enough can be carried in the coat pocket to 
do an ordinary room. 

Then again there are preparations which resemble 
dextrine somewhat, but which make a stronger paste 
that dries harder, which are made out of some of the by- 
products of starch and glucose factories, which come 
cheap and are very efficient. They do not make as 
white a paste as flour but they do not strike through 
the paper, and paper pasted with it will slide better than 
the ordinary flour paste would permit ; they are readily 
dissolved in cold water and for that reason are pre- 
ferred by many paper hangers, but warm water is bet- 
ter. 

Some, again, prefer to make their paste from starch. 
This, of course, makes a very nice, clear smooth paste-* 
but it is not considered as strong as flour paste. 

While prepared pastes and powdered paste are very 
handy, etc., it frequently happens that they cannot be 
bought in certain localities and for that and other rea- 
sons every paper hanger should know how to make 
his own paste from flour, either wheat or rye. The fol- 
lowing directions will make good, smooth paste if the 
directions are carried out ; to make an ordinary pail of 
paste, take 2)4 pounds of flour. It need not be the 
highest quality as the lower grades make a stronger 
paste than the whitest does, and the color of paste does 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 321 

rjot hurt it any. Put the flour in the pail you intend to 
make it and cook it in. Then pour in enough cold 
water to make it up into a stiff dough as for bread. Stir 
it up well until you are tired of it and some more. When 
well worked up pour in a little more cold water, stir 
as before, only that it will be a little thinner, and keep on 
adding a little water and stirring well until the 
whole mass is about of the consistency of thick pancake 
batter. This batter should be of a uniform texture if 
it has been properly stirred up. While preparing the 
flour, plenty of water should have been provided and 
put on the stove to boil. Then pour some of the 
boiling water into the batter slowly, stirrmg it well, and 
keep on pouring with one hand, stirring it well, and 
until it is cooked, which you will soon find out as the 
paste thickens and changes color when cooked. Be 
sure to have enough boiling water or you may not have 
enough, and the batch will be spoiled, as it must be 
cooked then or never. As the paste thickens in cooling, 
it should be thinned with enough water to make it 
rather thinner than it needs to be for the pasting on, 
but even then when it cools it will be likely to be loo 
thick for use and probably will require to be thinned 
with more water. Should it be lumpy it will show 
that it has not been properly stirred up in the dough 
or in the batter before cooking it ; in that case strain it 
through a calcimine strainer or through cheese cloth, 
and it will then be fit for use, 



322 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

22^. Paste should be applied to the wrong side of 
the paper, never on its face. This advice may sound 
simple and foolish to most persons, but that is where 
many paper hangers who are good at hanging manage 
to get more on than they intended. Good pasters among 
paper hangers are not as plentiful as they ought to be, 
and many an otherwise well executed job is marred by 
paste spots showing here and there or along the edges. 

In pasting the paper the outer edge is usually easily 
taken care of by bringing it over the edge of the board 
beyond the rest of the paper so that the paste brush will 
not touch the understrips; it is the back edge which 
gives trouble. The better way is to run the paste brush 
on the body of the paper to within ^ of an inch of the 
edge and when the strip has been all pasted but that to 
slip the hand under the strip being pasted and to slide it 
along ahead of the paste brush so that the brush can 
slide over the edge of the paper while it is lifted by the 
left hand clear of the board. In the ready trimmed pa- 
per, extra care should be taken that the edges are not 
given too much paste as it would squeeze over while be- 
ing smoothed on the wall. 

When the first half of a strip of paper has been 
pasted, fold it over carefully and pull up the rest of the 
strip on the paste board, which proceed to paste the 
same as directed; then fold it together. Folding it in 
that way prevents the paster slide coming in contact 
with the hands while handling it, and makes it easy to 
carry about as only the dry side shows. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 323 

For very long strips the paper may have to be doubled 
over again and again in order to get it all pasted on 
the ordinary 7 or 8-foot board. In such cases it must 
be machine-trimmed beforehand as it would be a very 
difficult and annoying job to unfold it and trim it piece- 
meal with a knife, or it may be dry trimmed by hand 
with shears as is the general practice in England today. 

224. For very good reasons ceilings are usually pa- 
pered first. This can be done in two ways : First, with 
a scaffold, supporting walking boards, which may be 
ordinary horses of the right height, which can be 
pulled along on the floor to the end of the room or from 
a walking board supported by a couple of ladder tres- 
tles. If the room is not square, a chalk line should be 
used in order to mark out the edge where the first strip 
of paper is to be placed; this should catch all parts of 
the ceiling between it and the side wall. If the wall is 
not true, some portions of the first strip will lap over 
on the side wall, but that does not matter as the frieze 
will cover it. Then continue, strip by strip, to the end. 
The first strip being right, all the others must be, too. 

Dropped ceilings are so called in wall paper parlance 
when the ceiling paper is extended over on the side 
walls either one-half or the width of a whole strip or 
more. 

Cheap papers are usually trimmed only on one side 
and lapped over the selvage of the other. 

The better grades are usually ''buffed/' or both edges 
are trimmed off and a joint made, as the name indicates, 



324 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

by abutting the two sides together when they are rolled 
over with the seam roller, and the rest of the strip with 
the smoothing roller. 

In the hanging of ingrained paper great care must be 
takefi to have the ceiling and walls sandpapered smooth, 
as a single sand speck will show through it. Also great 
care must be exercised in trimming the edges for they 
must fit up close or the plaster will show through. If 
the ceiling is uneven it will be impossible to make a 
good job with it except by matching up some distemper 
color as near like it as possible, and painting a strip an 
inch wide where the seams should meet; then, if, per- 
chance, the perfect fitting of the edges is impossible, the 
plaster will not show through and nothing but a criti- 
cal investigation will show it to the observer. 

225. As nearly everything said above concerning 
the hanging of paper upon ceilings applies with equal 
force to the hanging of paper upon the side walls, it 
wnll be unnecessary to repeat it here again. The only 
difference is in the manner of doing the work of apply- 
ing it, which for side walls is done from a step ladder. 
Commencing at a point where, after going around 
the room should there be a miss-match where the paper 
comes together, there will be the less likelihood of its 
being noticed; the work is continued, strip by strip, 
until one reaches the starting point. Windows and 
doors should have the design carried through over 
them, and the windows under them also. All corners 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 325 

should be cut out, making an allowance of ^ an inch 
of paper for the lap over. 

It is immaterial as to which way a man turns around 
the room in hanging wall paper, and it is altogether 
a matter of habit, as it cannot possibly make any differ- 
ence. The pieces should have been cut long enough so 
that the border will catch all of it at the top and a 
trifle over, and that it will reach down on the base 
board with a little to spare. The paper itself should be 
hung perfectly plumb. The paper hanger should always 
carry a plumb bob with him on every job for the pur- 
pose of knowing that his work is done properly. A 
good casing and corner knife will be of great help and 
a time saver in helping him to fit the end of his pieces. 
It requires good judgment at times in papering rooms 
in some of the old houses, where they are not properly 
trued, and where, sometimes, even the doors and win- 
dow frames are out of plumb. He has to so plan the 
hanging of the paper that it may partly hide these de- 
fects; as he could not follow the door frames in their 
wobbling. Under such conditions never use stripe pa- 
per nor paper showing a prominent geometrical design, 
as much as possible select paper having a design with 
little striking features on it. 

226. Borders come in half strips , whole strips, and 
again in any number of strips to the width of the roll. 
These smaller borders are used mainly in decorative 
paper hanging, in panels, etc. Dropped ceilings usually 
have a picture molding nailed on at the point of June- 



326 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

tion of the side wall paper proper, but there are imi- 
tations of these now made in paper and many use it 
in place of the real molding. In most rooms the wide 
borders or friezes are usually hung where the ceiling 
and sidewall come together or on half-strip dropped 
ceilings, just below that. 

There are several ways of hanging borders, the 
most usual is to cut the border up into lengths just 
about wide enough for the paper hanger to fit on the 
last one hung, and to reach as far as his other hand 
can brush it on the wall with the smoothing brush from 
the top of a step ladder, which is then moved on for the 
hanging of the next stretch. 

Another way: Where there is a walking board to 
reach from one side of a room to another, or where 
a scaffold has been put up permitting to go all round 
the room, which is to have the border trimmed on both 
sides with a machine trimmer; to paste it, folding it in 
short folds six to eight inches wide, one fold on top 
of another, the folds being carried in the left hand, the 
right fits the border at its beginning, and with the 
smoothing brush, brush the border tightly to the wall, 
the left hand letting out the folds as desired to the end. 
Where a ceiling is straight and the proper walking fa- 
cilities exist this is much the best way as no laps are 
shown — but good work can be done by either way. 

227. Hanging burlap requires a little more care all 
the way through than wall paper does. It is much 
heavier than the heaviest of paper and must be butt- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 327 

edged. Both selvedges must be knife-trimmed as they 
-are more or less dirty. This should be done with a 
very sharp knife in order to get a clean cut, without rag- 
ged edges, which would prevent the two edges coming 
closely together. It will be well to read over the direc- 
tions given in Paragraph 224 as to the painting of a 
strip under the junction point where the two edges 
come together so as to prevent any of the plaster show- 
ing in places where an imperfect union is made, either 
through carelessness or, sometimes, unavoidably on ac- 
count of imperfect walls. 

The walls should be sized with glue size in which a 
little brown sugar has been dissolved, or with some 
of the prepared glue sizes made especially for the pur- 
pose. A strong paste should be made into which about 
one ounce of glue to the ordinary pail has been dis- 
solved. 

228. It frequently happens that the ceilings and 
walls of a room become very dirty and smoky, especi- 
ally in our larger cities ; where illuminating gas is used, 
the ceilings will surely become blackened by it and else- 
where the smoke nuisance from the factories will find 
its way to the interior so that in a comparatively short 
time the paper begins to show signs of dinginess. 

Such can be readily cleaned and restored to their 
original brightness nearly by the "cleaning" process 
given below; Take flour and mix it with water to the 
consistency usual for dough for bread ; then knead into 
it enough plaster paris to make it up into a stiff dough, 



328 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

which will not leave any traces of its component parts 
on the walls. Then go over these with a back and forth 
motion, overlapping each time so that no parts may be 
left untouched. This must be done in a thorough man- 
ner, the hand kneading the dough all the time in order 
to incorporate the dirt on the wall into it. The ball 
will become pretty black in time, but as long as the dirt 
is well worked into it, it will not soil the paper. If the 
rooms are very dirty and large, it may be well to 
change occasionally and to prepare another clean ball 
of dough, as it is inexpensive and can be quickly pre- 
pared. 

The market is full of patented wall paper cleaners, 
but none will do the work any better than the one in- 
dicated above. 

Dirty wall paper can also be cleaned with the inside of 
fresh bread which has first been kneaded into a ball in 
the same manner as described for the flour dough, leav- 
ing out the plaster paris. This is employed by many 
cleaners and there is but little difference between the 
two. 

QTTESTIONS ON PAPER HANGING. 

217. What is said of paper hanging in general? 

218. What condition. should the walls be in for pa- 
per hanging? 

219. How are walls prepared for hanging wall pa- 
per? 

220. How are wooden partitions prepared? 

221. How is paper trimmed ? 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 329 

222. How is paste prepared? 

22^. How should the paste be applied? 

224. How are the ceilings hung? 

225. How are the side walls hung? 

226. How are the borders hung? 
22y. How is burlap applied to walls? 

228. How is smoked and dirty wall paper cleaned ? 

painter's tools and appliances. 

229. Painter's tools may be divided into two 
classes: First, those which are required for the appli- 
cation of the paint, and, secondly, the tools and appli- 
ances necesary for the painter to get at his work with 
with ease and safety. 

Many of the tools belonging to the first class were 
reviewed under the heading of "Brushes," for which 
see Paragraphs 1 5 to 30, and those are the most import- 
ant of that class ; the rest, which will be noticed below, 
are merely adjuncts of these — to take care of them, 
etc. Some few are indispensible but several could be 
dispensed with by the use of others equally as well 
fitted as they are to do the part wanted of them. So 
that a proper substitute may replace any of them, with- 
out the painting being made to suffer for it. 

230. Brush keepers are of this character. Brushes 
are expensive and must be taken care of as otherwise 
they will not last long nor work as well as they should. 

Really any empty vessel wherein a brush can be hung, 
but not laid, suspended so that the hair will be sur- 



330 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

rounded by water, linseed oid or varnish, according 
to the character of the brush — but in which the brush 
will not touch the bottom, will make a brush keeper for 
ordinary brushes used in house painting. A wooden 
pail can have wires driven into its sides, forming an ex- 
tended projection on the inside and upon them may be 
hung the brushes after having had a hole bored into 
their handles at a proper height, which will keep them 
from touching the bottom. Or a stout wire may be put 
through the center to which can be fastened a spiral 
spring coil of wire of sufficient strength to hold up the 
brushes where they are placed into it. The last is still 
better, as no hole need be bored into the brush handles. 
Under Fig. 66, following, is shown a brush keeper 
made somewhat upon the above described plan but a 
galvanized iron pail is used instead. 




Fig. 66 — Brush Keeper. 



Under the heading ''Carriage Painting," a cheap and 
efficient varnish brush keeper is described which is 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 331 

used as an individual keeper, as all good varnish brushes 
should be, and under the following Fig. 67 is shown one 
where several can be hung together and kept free from 




Fig. 67 —Paint Brush Holder. 

dirt and dust. It has a false bottom, where all dirt 
can settle. 

231. Under Fig. 68 is shown what is known as 
painter's tinware, consisting of a calcimine strainer, cal- 
cimine pail and a paint strainer, with a pot to use paint 

PAINTERS' TIN WARE. 






Paint Pails. Paint Strainers. 



from — this" last holds one gallon and has no ears stick- 
ing up at its sides to catch brush and paint. 



332 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

A wire should be soldered on about one-third of the 
way across the top, to wipe any surplus paint off the 
brush and to keep its sides clean; or a handy contri- 
vance can be bought ready made which can be put on or 




Fig. 



taken off at will — in a moment — which is still better, 
as it permits the cleaning of the pots without any inter- 
ference with the wire. This handy affair is shown in 
Fig. 69. 

232. Under Fig. 70 is shown a sanding bellows 




Fig. 70. 

which will be found a time saver over the crude and 
primitive way of throwing it on either by hand or with 
the old fashioned sandthrower. Besides it will soon 
pay for itself in the cost of material saved by its use. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



333 



2^^. Scraping knives in various sizes and shapes 
to suit any reasonable desire are shown in Fig. 71. and 





B 




Fig. 71 — Painter's Scrapers. 



334 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



Fig. y2 which show an equal variety of stiff and elastic 
putty knives. 







Fig. 72— Painter's Putty Knives. 



Some triangular putty knives are made but one can 
grind them better to suit such bevels as are desired. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 335 

234. Fig. y^ shows a gasoline torch to burn off 
paint with. It is an indispensible tool to have and 
should have a place in eyery well regulated paint shop, 
as it will save money over any other method that can be 
used in removing old paint over large surfaces. 




Fig. 73. 

235. There are, no doubt, a number of other time 
saving and helpful devices which are being used in 
many paint shops besides the ones enumerated above, 
still be incomplete. Those reviewed cover about the 
most essential and the list of such could be increased 
indefinitely and whole field of the ones that are neces- 
sary to do good work with. 

236. The next class of tools are in reality more ap- 
pliances useful to get at the painting; but are as es- 
sential to the painting trade as those of the former 
class. 

237. Ladders stand first in the list as they are the 
most important and are required by all painters to 
get at their work. These come in many forms and vari- 
'^ties suitable to certain situations or to do a certain 



336 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



kind of work. The ordinary short length single ladders 
are too well known to require illustrating. They run 
from 10 feet upward in 2 feet graduations to 20 feet. 

All ladders should be made of light but strong Nor- 
way pine sides with hickory rungs screwed into them. 




Fig. 74. 

241. Fig. 74 illustrates the better grades of exten- 
sion ladders and the way they fasten together. They 
are made in two lengths from 26 to 38 feet, and usually 
in three lengths, from 40 feet upward. 

Choose them with rollers as these assist in pushing 
them upward. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



337 



242. Fig. 75 shows the block and falls. Like the 
ladder, it can scarcely be dispensed with even in two or 
three-story buildings, as they save so much time in 
moving ladders besides being so much more conveni- 
ent to do work from than ladders. They are indispensa- 
ble for all buildings over three stories high. The rig- 
ging consists of two double blocks for the top and of 
two single blocks for the bottoms. The ropes should be 
of the very best manilla not less than % inch thick, but 




Fig. 75. 



% or even one inch is better and certainly safer, espe- 
cially for long falls. A platform 18 to 22 feet long and 
two supports for same, which also serve to hook on 
the single blocks, and which have a wheel fitted in one 
end to roll down against the building sides without in- 
juring them. Two large Swedish iron roof hooks into 
which the double blocks are fastened complete the 
"swing scaffold," as it is best known in many localities. 
It seems superfluous to say that nothing but the best of 



338 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



material should enter into their construction, as life and 

limb are in constant jeopardy while they are being used. 

243. Fig. y6 shows the ladder jacks of which there 

are a number of various shapes and forms, differing 



PATENT PENDING 




Fig. 76. 

but little, however, as to efficiency if well made from 
good, soft charcoal iron. Two of these make one set. 
They are placed on two ladders and a walking plank 
put between them, resting on the jacks, making a bridge 




Fig. 77. 

between the ladders from which the painting can be 
done. 

244. Fig. yy shows a roof ladder. This is attached 
to the end rungs of a ladder and then it can be thrown 
over the roof ridge which holds it firmly in place. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 339 

245. For inside painting, good strong, well braced 
step ladders are needed of various sizes from three 
feet upward. A poor step ladder is dear at any price 
and none should be too good if life and limb is worth 
anything to the men who have to use them. Some of 
the flimsy traps for eternity sold in many stores because 




Fig. 78. 

they are cheap may do for some ruralist to go up to 
glory with, but the painter has no use for them. Fig. 
78 shows one that is well braced and which will not 
vviggle. 

246. Painter's trestles are double ladders joined 
together at the top and wfiich when spread out brace 
each other, making a solid support for walking planks 



340 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

to be set upon two of these, which make one set. Fig. 
79 shows a pair supporting an extension walking board, 
an ingenious contrivance enabHng the workman to 
lengthen or shorten it to suit the situation and side of 




Fig. 79. 

the room where they are used. When done with, the 
board can be compactly drawn together. 



Fig. 80. 

247. Fig. 80 illustrates a plank supporter which is 
very useful in interior work as it can be placed where 
ladders cannot be set up or anywhere a board can 
be set up. It fastens itself to any sized board that will 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



341 



go through its jaws and at any height desired upon it 
and gives a firmer support to the walking board which 
may rest upon it and a step ladder. 

243. Under Fig. 81 is shown an adjustable scaffold- 





Fig. 81 — Paperhanger's Table. 

ing jack which should be extensively used, as they will 
save much time and money by doing with a few sets 



342 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



what would require a large number of old fashioned 
**horses" needed to support walking planks for the 
painting and decorating of interiors of buildings. They 
are made in three sizes, ranging from the lowest — 3 
feet — to a possible extension of 1 1 feet for the highest. 
249. Fig. 82 illustrates a shop paint mill which is 
an excellent piece of machinery for every paint shop to 
be equipped with. While it may not be considered as ab- 




Fig. 82. 

solutely necessary as now all pigments can be bought 
ground in oil cheaper and better ground than one can do 
it for himself. When the mill is handy it would pay to 
run it through many a mixture, which would be the bet- 
ter for having been put through the mill. 

The above comprises all that is required to get at 
any work to be painted either upon the exterior or in- 
terior of buildings. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 343 

QUESTIONS ON PAINTEr's TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 

229. How many classes of painter's tool are there ? 

230. What are brush keepers? 

231 to 249. Should be used to refer to. 

PIGMENTS. 

250. Pigment is a synonym of color. As under 
that heading every pigment of any value and its pe- 
culiarities, antipathies, etc., are treated upon fully, the 
reader is referred to Paragraphs 61 to 84 for the in- 
formation required concerning them. 

SCENE PAINTING. 

251. Scene painting is an attractive branch of the 
trade and calls for considerable artistic ability, requir- 
ing special study and which if an individual once makes 
it a success, generally becomes a lifetime calling. 

The painting of theatrical scenery, drop curtains, 
wings, etc., is usually done in water colors as it looks 
much better in that medium than when executed in 
flatted oil colors. Distemper dries perfectly flat and 
dead, which is hard to get from oil work as so much 
of the work has to be brushed over and over again, 
which would make it shiny in places. Were it even 
posible to make the oil painting look as good in the 
flat as the water color does, it would not have any ad- 
vantage over it. To make the oil painting look as flat 
as the water colors would require them to be thinned 
altogether .with turpentine; then it would not be as 
well bound as the water colors are, for these have a 



344 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

strong glue binding which will hold it on well, while the 
all-turpentine colors would dust off after a thorough 
drying from the rolling up and down of the scenes. 

252. A scene painter should know many things 
more than is required in most branches of the painting 
trade in order to be able to represent whatever is re- 
quired truly and naturally. / 

He must possess an ultimate knowledge of colors, 
not only such as all decorative painters should have, but 
also of their effects upon the vision at great distances 
from the object painted, and also of the effect that gas 
and other artificial lights have upon them. He must 
know beforehand what effects the blending of the colors 
will be when seen from the audience ; for this blending 
will appear very much different to the man in the back 
part of the balcony than it will to the man on the stage 
even in daylight when there is no artificial light to 
change the color of the pigments, so he must be able 
to arrange his coloring schemes entirely different from 
what they look to be from the spot where the painting 
is done. This study of distant effects must be acquired 
beforehand or the finished work will be a failure from 
the artistic standpoint at least. 

He should also make a study of the effect of gas and 
other artificial lights, as has been already intimated. 
For if he does not possess an intimate knowledge of 
these effects upon the various colors, some of them he 
will find so much changed as to be hardly recognizable 
at night. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 345 

It goes without the saying it that he must be a good 
off-hand designer or he will be apt to put out caricatures 
where such are not in demand. It is, of course, ex- 
pected that every decorator should have a good knowl- 
edge of drawing, but the scenic painter's must be of a 
higher character than that of any of the others. The 
eyes of the whole audience is focused, as it were, upon 
his work during most of the play and every portion of it 
will be examined and any fault in the details or incon- 
gruous coloring wil be noted and commented upon. 
Much of which would pass unnoticed in ordinary pic- 
torial work, which one examines at a close range, and 
where the observation is not constanjt, as it is apt to be 
from the audience to the stage. 

253. The material needed for scenic painting com- 
prises nearly everything in the line of pigments that 
can be used in water colors besides glues to bind them 
on, metallic leaves such as Dutch metal, aluminum, 
silver leaf, and, sometimes even gold leaf, the metallic 
foils, tinsels, bronzes, flitters, brocades, with the various 
liquid sizings required for their application. 

Whiting is the principal color used for either paint- 
ing white or as a base upon which to build up light tints 
of any colors or by mixing in small quantities with these 
to render them more opaque. The mixing of tints also 
requires a greater knowledge of effects of colors than is 
necessary for decorators whose work is examined at 
close range. ^ So the scenic artist in preparing his tints 
is forced to make them much stronger than is required 



346 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

for nearby work. At first he will be very likely to err 
in making his contrasts too weak, although they may 
appear unusually strong to him from the painting floor. 
As in the course of time the scenic artist will make use 
of nearly every pigment know^n, the reader is referred 
to paragraphs 6i to 84 regarding any information he 
may require concerning these. In subsequent para- 
graphs will be given a list of colors best suited to pro- 
duce certain effects and for certain purposes. 

To lay out the design of a scene nothing better than 
good French charcoal crayons will be found as the lines 
can be whipped out with a flogger while chalk lines will 
not always be easily effaced, retaining a faint outline, 
wdiich is anything but desirable and which are mortify- 
ing when appearing upon otherwise well done work. 

254. Glue is the material used as the binding ma- 
terial for the water colors. It is a matter of the first 
importance than that it should be of the best quality 
and of light color, at least for all light tints or colors 
with clear tones, otherw^ise the darker glues would 
change it or muddy it. The best glues to use are the 
thin-flaked ones known as calcimine glue. The ones of 
an ivory tone, nearly clear but not quite so, which are 
tough and do not break off short with an easy frac- 
ture, are the best. Avoid the opaque-looking white 
flaked glues; they might possibly be all right, but the 
chances are that they have been weighted down with 
some adulterating make-weight stuff. This can easily 
be ascertained by soaking the glue, melting it, diluting 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 347 

it with water and letting it stand awhile as this white 
stuff will be precipitated down to the bottom of he 
vessel. 

Glue should be of the consistency of a trembling jelly 
to mix with the colors, but should be melted and mixed 
hot or at least warm enough so as not to jell ; so, when 
trying a new kind it will be well to weigh it, soak it in 
cold water over night, and melt it with the usual quan- 
tity of hot water and set it aside to jell ; if it is about as 
thick as usual, it shows that the glue is about of the same 
strength — if it jells any weaker, then it shows lack of 
strength. It is well to weigh out any quantity of the 
glue needed as then the average quantity of water used 
ordinarily, proportionate to the weight can be added 
to it and the glue water kept up to a uniform strength. 

Good glue will take up seventeen to eighteen times 
its own weight of water while soaking up over night 
and will swell to many times its former bulk, so the 
package should be much larger than needed to hold the 
dry glue. The amount of water absorbed is of itself a 
very good indication of the value of a glue, as poor glue 
has not as great absorbing power as the better kinds 
have. 

The glue water should not be much stronger than 
that of a trembling jelly, for there is danger that if it 
be made much stronger of the colors showing up shiny 
when they dry. Again, one should guard against the 
opposite danger of having it too weak to bind the colors 
sufficiently to hold them on well. 



348 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

255. The tools used in scenic painting do not differ 
materially from those used by other decorators. 

For the sizing of canvas and the layin in of ground 
colors a good calcimine brush 6 or 7 inches wide make 
an excellent tool. 

For the laying in of large bodies of color 2, 3 and 
4 inches flat, double varnish bristle brushes with a few 
assorted sizes of oval chisel pointed sash tools will 'suf- 
fice. 

A few dozens of round, flat, triangular, long and 
short fresco bristle lining brushes will be needed as 
nearly all the details of the decorative work as well as 
the lining up will be done with these. No finer 
brushes will be needed, such as artists' or decorators' 
camel's hair pencils, as the work must be coarsely done 
and the bristle fresco liners are good and small enough 
for any purpose. Some of the leaves, grass, etc., can 
and must be done with the sash tools and even larger 
brushes. 

Pallet knives and a marble slab and stone muller to 
grind down coarse colors with which cannot be ob- 
tained ready ground in distemper as is sometimes the 
case in the smaller towns. The above will not apply in 
the larger cities, where usually all colors can be bought 
ground up in distemper. It is true that many colors 
can be procured ground fine dry; such should be 
bought in that way as they are cheaper and answer as 
as well as those ground in distemper, but many are too 
coarse in their dry state and must be ground with the 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 349 

muller where it is impossible to buy them properly 
ground. 

Straight edges with beveled edges of various sizes 
such as fresco painters use in lining are needed, some 
longer ones for laying out a level and plumb bob, T 
squares and triangles, large wooden leg dividers, chalk 
and chalk lines ; also some charcoal for chalk line. Flog- 
gers to whip out charcoal marks and a palette board to 
hold colors. This palette board naturally must be made 
upon an entirely different plan than the common flat 
form of the ordinary one. It must be made with an 
edge on three sides to retain the cups into which the 
colors are put. Some advise a complicated affair with 
compartments in it to hold the colors in, but they give 
much trouble to clean. If a compartment becomes dirty 
the rest may need no cleaning; it is next to impossible 
to do it properly. The better way is to have tin vessels 
of proper size which can be lifted out singly as needed 
and the raised edge will keep them from slipping off 
the board when the palette is tilted up, as it sometimes 
requires to be. The vessel holding the glue water 
should be of different shape so as to be easily recog- 
nized and it will be well to have three or four of them 
so that the brushes used in different groups of color may 
not muddy it up and render it unfit for use for colors of 
a different tone. 

The above are the principal tools needed for doing 
the work ; no doubt that many more might be added to 
the list but it is possible to do the best of work with the 



350 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

ones mentioned. In the following paragraph will be 
described a few appliances necessary for the proper 
equipment of a scenic studio. 

256. The location of a studio is very important to 
the professional scenic painter. The amateur who only 
has an occasional job to do will have to necessarily con- 
tent himself with such accomodations as he may find in 
an ordinary paint shop, but the latter are unhandy for 
such work and they will be much hampered in getting 
at their work as they will have to do the pal'nting from 
cramped and uncomfortable positions, which usually 
tell more or less upon the quality of the work done. 
Few ordinary paint shops have ceilings of sufficient 
height to accomodate the frame of a large scene or 
of a drop curtain. Even in many of the theatres and 
opera hous^es there are no special arrangements made 
for the painting or repairing of scenery, although the 
majority of the newer built ones have arrangements 
made for this at the back part of the building. 

The studio, however, which is built with a special 
view of being used as a workshop where scenic painting 
is to be the exclusive business carried on should be 
built according to the requirements needed for the 
speediest and easiest methods of executing the work. 
The building should be three ordinary stories in height 
and should be well lighted on the top floor where all 
the painting is done. The lighting should all come 
from above, from skylights in the roof, as only untrare- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 351 

meled, direct light will do and no side light should be 
allowed, so that the third story will be windowless. 

The floor itself should be so built that it will not 
touch the walls around the room by about twelve inches, 
leaving an empty space of that width all around it. The 
same arrangement should be carried out upon the sec- 
ond floor, too. This will permit of the largest sized 
scenery and drop curtains to be raised and lowered at 
will from the top to the bottom on the first floor. It 
is needless to say that the second and first floors may 
have as many windows as may be desirable for them 
to have, as no painting will need to be done on those 
floors. 

The top floor must be equipped with machinery to 
raise or lower scenes quickly and there are several pat- 
ented capstan-like rolling machines which do the work 
handily and quickly. But any handy carpenter can 
readily make up a homemade affair that will do the 
work nearly as well as the others and at much less cost. 
The above arrangements will enable the scene painter 
to stand erect at his work in executing the painting. 
Being secure and feeling so on a solid floor, this as- 
surance will enable him to do twice as much work or 
more with greater ease to himself than he could possibly 
do in any other manner. 

257. The amateur will be under many disadvan- 
tages in doing his work, but frequently special scenery 
is wanted in. the smaller towns where there are no fa- 
cilities provided other than such makeshifts as may be 



353 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

found. The painter should secure a place high and 
wide enough to accommodate the frame upon which the 
canvas or muslin upon which the scenery is to be 
painted, will be stretched. This canvas should be a 
few inches wider and longer each way than the size of 
the finished scene is to be. It should be evenly stretched 
upon the frame and all wrinkles removed, then securely 
tacked on, when it will be ready for the sizing. 

The sizing should be ratker stout. Soak glue of a 
good quality until it has absorbed all the water it is 
capable of, then melt it over a slow fire and in the pro- 
portion of about one gallon of water to eight ounces of 
dry glue so that one pound will make about an ordinary 
i2-quart pail full of sizing when melted; then proceed 
to apply this size to the cloth on the frame but do not 
touch the size to within one inch of where it is tacked 
on to the frame, leaving one inch of it unsized all the 
way around the frame (top, sides and bottom being left 
unsized for one inch). This is very important as other- 
wise the cloth would not dry evenly but wrinkled and it 
would be very difficult to take them up even after re- 
tacking it over ; in fact it could hardly be done while the 
unsized cloth on the frame and the inch of it left unsized 
will take up the strain and the cloth will dry evenly and 
tight. 

When dry, proceed to fill the cloth or canvas with a 
good, solid coat of whiting, which has been strongly 
sized with glue water. This coat should be well worked 
in, cross brushed and laid off, so as to insure a perfectly 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 353 

well covered ground to work upon. If this ground 
coat has not been properly done there will be trouble 
afterwards in doing it over, besides loading the canvas 
with the unnecessary weight of another which will 
make further trouble in causing suction so that the 
painting of the details of the scene will be more difficult 
than over one coat ground well done. 

258. The painting proper of the scene is very much 
the same as that of any other similar kind of decorative 
work either in perspective, lineal or free hand painting 
and will present no great difficulty, especially to one 
who is used to free hand decoration in distemper, that 
is, at least, in so far as putting on the colors goes, as that ' 
is about the same ; in fact it is less difficult in that there 
is no great preciseness required — but the very seeming 
freedom and carelessness in the execution of daubing 
on the painting is all calculated upon and the results of 
it are as well known in the mind of the scenic artist as 
the most precise is to the decorator who paints for 
near-by effects. This very coarseness is discounted be- 
forehand with a full knowledge of certain effects it will 
produce at a distance and the seeming carelessness is 
all in the eye of the onlooker. 

Scene painting has to be made bold and the colors 
must be put on strong without regard as to their looks 
in the immediate vicinity. Colors at a distance blend 
together so that if they are gradually shaded as for 
work which is to be closely seen, they would appear very 
tame either not shaded at all or as a solid shade or tone 



554 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

of one color all blended into one. For the same reason 
the details too must be put on much stronger colors than 
for near-bj^ painting. This requires quite a study of 
distant effects and all amateurs are timid and afraid of 
going too far — they have to catch on to it gradually 
when experience will teach them to become more bold 
in the use of strong coloring and every mistake made 
becomes an instruction which will eventually make the 
amateur's work better on the next job he undertakes 
after he has noted the tameness of the combination used. 

There is another phase in the painting of scenery 
which will give beginners trouble at first and that is the 
changed appearance of some colors under artificial light 
such as gas, kerosene or gasoline illumination and in a 
lesser degree under electric lighting. In a subsequent 
paragraph is given a list of colors to use to produce the 
best effects for the painting of various shades and for 
special purposes which will look well under artificial 
light. The combinations can be made from such as are 
named to suit the ideas of the painter. 

259. Colors can be used either opaque or transpar- 
ent when they are naturally so. Some of the transpar- 
ent ones can be made more opaque by the addition of 
whiting, but it will somewhat change the tone making 
them a little lighter, so it must not be over done. If a 
full deep opaque tone is wanted of a naturally transpar- 
ent color, it will have to be made by mixing several pig- 
ments together that will produce a similar color to the 
one desired. To explain ; If a solid burnt sienna brown 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 355 

is desired, the natural burnt sienna being transparent 
and as whiting would reduce its depth, it should be made 
artificially from solid and opaque colors and a similar 
color made from Venetian red, ochre and black and this 
would be solidly opaque. 

The blues seem to give the most trouble of any as 
most of them appear greenish under artificial light. 
Some of the ultramarines have a greenish tone even in 
daylight and when used should be very carefully se- 
lected as the true blue shades of it are after all the best 
blues to use in making up blue tints for scene painting. 

The chrome yellows become much lighter under gas 
light so that the painting done with those yellows must 
be made much deeper if the scene is to be used where 
the lighting is done with gas. 

259. Purples are readily made by mixing some of 
the blue and Indian red taken from the palette and 
mixed on the mixing board to which can be added whit- 
ing to produce the shade of it wanted. 

Where considerable color of one tint is wanted as for 
skies, etc., it is better to prepare it ready for use in a 
separate can or pot. 

For skies — they should be first put on with the solid 
color and then the brush can be dipped in this and that 
color and applied where wanted, and blended in while 
wet and as many variations produced as wanted. 

Foliage greens should not be made from chrome 
green as these contain chrome yellow and under gas- 
light would appear much lighter toned; besides, that 



356 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

no good foliage green can be made from them as they 
are too positive. They are best made from ochres, raw- 
sienna, Prussian blue and glazed with some green lake 
where a rich effect is desired. The chrome yellow may 
be used but they must be made deeper in order to pro- 
duce the effect wanted and this would look unnatural by 
day light. 

For clouds mix verditer and orange chrome. For 
cold gray clouds add a litle black. For lights in -clouds 
mix yellow ochre and madder lake, or any other good 
crimson lake, or yellow ochre and orange chrome. 

For sea zvater use Dutch pink alone or raw sienna 
and black Prussian blue. Water reflects the color of 
the skies and the image and coloring of near-by objects 
such as houses, trees, etc. 

For moonlight skies a good tint is made from ver- 
diter or indigo or its equivalent in Prussian blue and 
black, lightened up with whiting. For clouds add black 
and more blue. 

For rocks, stone, etc., raw and burnt sienna, In- 
dian red, chrome greens and black, vandyke brown, ul- 
tramarine, rose pink and ochres. Black and Venetian 
red toned down with a little whiting makes a good stone 
color for many purposes. 

For distant foliage, Dutch pink alone or raw sienna 
and black, or raw sienna and a trifle of Prussian blue. 

Gold tones are best made from ochres and Dutch 
pink, raw sienna and Vandyke brown. For the lights 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 357 

use flake white and lemon chrome yellow or medium 
chrome yellow according to the shade of it wanted. 

For trunks of trees and branches according to spe- 
cies and tones desired, Prussian blue, yellow ochre, raw 
and burnt sienna, ultramarine Dutch pink, raw and 
burnt umber and maroon lake for an overglaze. 

For grass the chrome greens in all shades of it, using 
extra light chrome green for the high lights, mixed 
with pale chrome yellow or medium chrome yellow. 

For dead leaves, raw and burnt sienna, raw and burnt 
umber. 

For stone buildings, yellow ochre, raw sienna; raw 
and burnt umber; ultramarine blue, Venetian red and 
black. 

For brick, Venetian red, and for shadows add ultra- 
marine blue. 

For fire reflection use orange mineral. In all the 
above it is understood that whiting is used to make" 
proper shades of all the tints wanted. 

In making out the above list all the colors useful in 
making the tints are given — not that all should be 
mixed together, but such should be selected* from them 
to mix the shades wanted. Some of them, as Prussian 
blue, lampblacks, etc., are very strong and but little of 
such should be used as little is needed to produce much 
effect. It is better to add several times if needed in 
mixing a tint than to spoil the shade by adding too much 
at the start of making them. It is only by many trials 



358 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

that a beginner can expect to produce proper shades at 
once. All such should carefully try the shades by dry- 
ing them as recommended before. 

QUESTIONS ON SCENE PAINTING. 

251. What material is chiefly used in scene painting 
and why ? 

252. What should a person know in order to be- 
come a scene painter? 

253. What material is chiefly used in scene paint- 
ing? 

254. What is said about glues? 

255. What tools are needed for scene painting? 

256. How should a scene painting studio be ar- 
ranged ? 

257. How should the cloth or canvas be prepared 
for the painting ? 

258. How is the painting done? 

259. Give colors required for making the various 
tints. 

SIGN PAINTING. 

260. Signs in some form or another have probably 
been in use as long as commerce has existed, or at least 
some equivalent for it to let people know that at such a 
place something was for sale or exchange. They cer- 
tainly existed and were in use during the Roman em- 
pire, and traces of them have been handed down in an 
unbroken chain ever since. 

During the middle ages before printing, and later 
when universal education had made everybody familiar 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 359 

with the form of letters and with the reading of them, 
most of the signs were of a pictorial character and as 
trades all had trade marks the business was represented 
by that plus some peculiar sign that denoted the in- 
dividuality of the proprietor. Even as late as the mid- 
dle of the nineteenth century, before the introduction of 
forced education, pictorial signs were still largely used. 
Novelists such as Dickens refer to such signs freely in 
their writings, and shops and inns were called after 
and known by the picture represented on their signs. 
Many of the older men living today can well remember 
the practice as it existed in the days of their youth. 
Some of those signs were certainly very crude in the 
drawing and in the painting of the subjects as there 
were botches in those days as well as at the present 
time. But, good or bad, they appealed to the unread 
as well as to the educated and a servant girl told to go 
for something to the sign of the "Lion Head" or to the 
"Three Black Crows" had no need of being told the rest 
in order to know what place was meant. 

Some of the greatest painters in all countries have 
been guilty of painting such signs as favors shown to 
some friendly "hosts" at taverns and elsewhere and 
such, no doubt, must have shown considerable talent in 
the execution. 

But at the present time since everybody can, read, 
this fashion is obsolete at least in business houses, lo- 
cations of shops of all kinds of trades, professions or 
manufacturies. But there is still an enormous amount 



360 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

of pictorial sign work done in what is known as "adver- 
tising* signs," much more in fact than at any other 
period of the world's existence. 

The idea is as good now as in the older days, as peo- 
ple will read a well displayed advertisement to find out 
what the advertiser has to say about the picture on the 
sign which has riveted their attention, where, otherwise, 
without such aid on account of the multitude of such 
signs they would have passed it by unnoticed. So, it 
can readily be surmised that a general sign painter in 
order to make good in all branches of his business must 
be very versatile and artistic in his knowledge. 

261. Sign painting can be divided into several 
branches : 

1. The commercial, which includes the painting of 
signs upon sign boards to be hung up on buiklings or on 
the buildings themselves. It may be in all kinds of oil 
work, plain or shaded, and includes gilded signs on 
wood, but as gilded signs are specially treated upon and 
that it really is a separate branch from oil painted signs 
which many otherwise good sign painters are not fa- 
miliar with, it is entitled to a separate place in the 
describing of it. 

2. Show card painting has become speciaHzed into 
a separate branch and requires training of a different 
order. One stroke muslin sign work, .while upon a 
much larger scale, properly belongs to this class of 
work, although much of it is being done by all regular 
sign painting shops. But for the sake of describing 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 361 

under a proper classification it will be noticed under this 
division, which, after all, is and must be arbitrary. 

3. Gilding on glass and gold lettering on wood with 
accessories such as ornamentation of the letter with 
pearl flakes, etc., bronzing, etc. 

4. The advertising signs in all their forms, which 
include pictorial painting, etc. 

Each one of these four artificial divisions of the sign 
painting trade will furnish sufficient variation in the 
use of special skill to keep one pretty busy usually, and 
as each also requires a different handling, the specialist 
who makes it his sole business acquires more skill and 
dispatch in doing his work. 

462. The above classification of the trade is an ar- 
tificial one made for the purpose of examination into 
its details. It is also made by the large shops in the se- 
. lection of workmen who are kept within the limits de- 
scribed in the classes described in the former paragraph. 

As a matter of fact no such distinctions exist in any 
of our large city shops. They take everything in the 
line of all of the four classes with possibly the ex- 
ception of advertising bulletin work, which is made a 
special business by itself. 

In the country towns, too, the sign painter must be 
able to do any and all kinds demanded as he seldom has 
enough work to employ specialists, and frequently no 
more than he can do himself. So, the general sign 
painter must be able to do a fairly good piece of 
work at the risk of being lowered in the estimation of 



362 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

his customers, if he does not in all branches of the 
business, from the painting of a dainty show card and 
gilding on glass to the painting of a big pictorial sign 
on the broadside of a large barn. 

So it can readily be seen that a general sign painter 
must possess a high class of knowledge. To be 
successful and a good workman, the sign painter must 
be a good judge of distances and possess an ac- 
curate vision in order to save time in laying out a sign 
within a given number of feet and to balance it properly. 
He must be able to judge at a glance what sort of letters 
will work best for the various situations of a sign and 
right for any kind of business as all are not equally 
adapted for all alike. When his work is to be sur- 
rounded with dozens of others he must be able to give 
his own sufficient individuality, that passers-by will no- 
tice it and that it may not be confounded with the rest. 
He must be able to draw accurately and to scale and 
also be well versed in perspective for a truthful repre- 
sentation of buildings and machinery upon wagon cov- 
ers and advertising sign boards. He must be a good 
judge of color effects at a distance and for nearby ones, 
sign painter must be able to do a fairly good piece of 
work too, as the job is seen from both near and far. So 
he has to arrange a sort of compromise between the two 
extremes. As much of his work is done upon glass, he 
must be a good gilder not only on wood but glass and 
everything where he is required to work upon. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 363 

263. The material required for doing sign work 
comprises about all the colors known to the house 
painter or decorator not only ground in oil but all the 
water colors, and those ground in japan or varnish for 
wagon work. Besides all sorts and kinds of gold and 
other metal leaves, bronzes, flitters, metallics, etc., for 
show card work and for the latter to be able to squeeze 
out raised letters and ornaments from a plaster paris 
bulb and squeezers, pearl flakes, diamond dust, etc. ; he 
will need nearly all the usual accessories listed in art 
store catalogues at some time or other in the prosecu- 
tion of his business. 

Much of this material will be used but seldom, and 
need not be carried in stock. 

264. The tools required to do sign painting com- 
prise those used by the house painter for the prepara- 
tion of grounds, for the painting of the sign proper, 
and in addition thereto a good assortment of sizes and 
shapes of camel's hair, ox hair and sable lettering 
brushes, from No. i to 12. Some Y^, Yi and i-inch 
camel and ox hair one-stroke flat brushes, which are 
great time savers not only for the making of letters at 
one stroke, as their name indicates, but which are useful 
in all regular sign work as well. He will also need 
striping brushes, gold tips, etc., putty and palette 
knives, charcoal and chalk crayons, ladders, swing stage 
blocks and falls, step ladders, easels and frames to 
stretch muslin signs upon, an air brush for show card 
work, tin pots and strainers, etc., etc. 



364 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Previous to describing the methods used in doing 
sign work it will be well to give a few general direc- 
tions for the beginner, as these presuppose a knowl- 
edge of making the letters. It will be impossible to give 
a lengthy "expose" of all that a novice will have to go 
through to learn how to paint letters ; time and experi- 
ence is required to make a good workman in the sign 
painting business as well as in any other. But a person 
who is handy with the use of brushes can soon perfect 
himself so that he can do all the ordinary sorts of sign 
work, and gradually work himself up to a higher de- 
gree of excellence upon the more intricate parts of the 
trade. 

The best practice the novice can have is to make 
straight perpendicular lines equidistant from each other 
— then horizontal ones and slanting ones at all angles 
and in both directions. When he can make them 
straight, equidistant and successively so any number of 
times, and when he has practised on curves and re- 
curves so he can reproduce them consecutively at will, 
too — he has mastered the sign painting trade. A solid 
week or two, ten hours a day, at that kind of work will 
do it. It may be monotonous and may become disgust- 
ing, but there is nothing Kke it to learn fast. All 
letters resolve themselves into straight lines and curves 
so that the time which is seemingly wasted enables a be- 
ginner really to form any letter at sight when he is mas- 
ter of his straight line strokes and curves. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 365 

Letters are not all of the same width, nor will all 
letters look well separated from each other by an equal 
spacing as in print. The painter can usually arrange 
his spacing so as to balance up any deficiency, excepting 
where two open topped letters come following each 
other as an A following an L for instance; the wide 
space looking empty as it will at the top is very hard 
to balance just right. In such a case reducing the width 
of the L will help it some but it must not be to the ex- 
tent of being strikingly so. When an open top letter is 
followed by one with a wider top than its foot as a V or 
Y or a T the top can be extended into the space 
which really belongs to the L if it was square with 
good effect. So can a V following an A trespass upon 
the top space of the A with good effect upon the bal- 
ancing of the wording. Letters with straight line bod- 
ies like an H, N, M, E, R or U should be spaced as near 
equally apart as can be and any of these following an 
open top letter should be set as close to it as can be 
done. An I should have more space allowed between it 
and its neighbors than any other, or it may be con- 
founded with another adjoining straight-bodied letter; 
the curved letters as O, O or B, R, and P can be set a tri- 
fle closer to a straight-bodied letter than two straight- 
bodied letters can. If the above directions are followed 
in spacing there will be little trouble in balancing the let- 
ters in a word properly — so that they will look at their 
best. 



366 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

As the letters for all kinds of sign work are nearly 
the same in their formation it will be well to notice them 
here once for all, the proper allowance of size, etc., being 
made by the reader for the different kinds of work. 

With all the innumerable styles of letters which one 
can see in a type foundry catalogue, aside of Old Eng- 
lish or German text and Script, the whole of them are 
simply variations of two primary styles of letters. 

The Roman with its make-up of fine and heavy bodied 
lines is the author of all such with or without extend- 
ing spurs and the heavy bodied block is also the proto- 
type of all such with or without extending spurs, thick 
or thin, shaded or unshaded. 

There has been a number of off hand nondescript 
styles of letters which have had a season or two at the 
most of faddish popularity, which certainly cannot 
claim any relationship to the two standard styles de- 
scribed. They make diffcult reading and one might as 
well have a sign written in Egyptian hieroglyphics or 
Turkish as a mongrel type which has to be studied over 
before it can be made out. Life is too short for people 
to waste much of it in solving puzzles and then there is 
a general return to the standard styles and its numerous 
variations, which are certainly plentiful enough to suit 
almost any taste. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 367 

Below are shown a few of the leading styles and 
their modifications : Fig. 83 shows a pure style of Ro- 

MODES 

Fig. 83. 

man in a proportion where they show their elegant 
form to good advantage although the Roman type looks 
very well in an extended form even very much wider 
than it is high. On the reverse when Roman type is 
narrowed up, as in Fig. 84, it loses some of its beauty 

MEECER 

Fig. 84. 

and at a distance becomes less distinct. 

Roman lower case is shown in Fig. 85 and it, too, 

repairing 

Fig. 85. 

possesses the same beauty of form as its capitals. While 
signs in several lines usually look best in various styles 
of letters for each line, or at least for every other one, 



368 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Roman capitals and lower case may be used alone and 
give a very neat result, as shown in Fig. 86. 

This Desirable 
RESIDENCE 

t o be Le t. 

For particulars 
apply to 

Fig. 86. 

It: was stated before that all other styles were simply 
variations of the Roman and block, so in Fig. 87 is 

MAKER 

Fig. 87. 

given an illustration of such variation, and in Fig. ^^ 
another shaded where the modification is still stronger 
but where the original type can be plainly seen. 








Fig. 88 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 369 

In Fig. 89 is shown the other standard form from 
which all other thick-bodied letters sprang from. Fig. 

MAKER 

Fig. 89. 

90 is probably a better sample of it as bemg less elonga- 
ted, but its lines are proportionately much thinner than 

MAPS 

Fig. 9a. 

Fig. 89, and this will answer to show some of the many 
variations in the type. In Fig. 91 the above type some- 

TT AT 



Fig. 91. 



370 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

what mingled with a spray of Roman is shown with 
extended spurs, and in Fig. 92 and Fig. 93 is shown a 

DENT 



Fig. 92. 



HOUSE 

Fig. 93. 

thicker bodied letter and an elongated one of the same 
order. Many styles of letters are compounds of the two 
main ones so that it is sometimes difficult to tell to 
which they belong the most, as Figs. 92 and 95. 

DRAPER 



Fig. 94. 



CASE 

Fig. 95. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 371 

Fig. 96. 

Fig. 97. 

Old English is shown in Figs. 96 and 97. It is ele- 
gant, too, in form with its succession of thin and heavy 
lines and is frequently used in church text on account 
of its gothic form with which form religion has cast a 
hallow of sacredness. 

Script is extensively used in sign painting. It may 
be any style of letter desired, all of them look well. 
Some of the signatures of the proprietors for whom the 

Good 
Stabling 



372 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



signs are painted sometimes have them imitated upon 
them. All script signs look neat. Fig. 98 shows one 
style which is largely used, and Fig. 99 shows one 
which is continuous as in actual writing. 

Rustic letters are very appropriate for many situa- 




Fi^. 99. 

tions and trades, as for gardeners and florists, etc. ; an 
illustration is given of such in Fig. 100. 

267. Shading letters improves them very much if 
properly done and renders them more attractive if the 
coloring is in good taste. Where shading looks at its 
best, there must be no crowding in the spacing but a 




liberal allowance made for the shade, and some over. 
Crowded letters do not look well, shaded. 

In shading letters do not let the shading color come 
close to the letter itself but leave a margin wide enough 
that the ground may show between it and the letter it- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 373 

self. It should not be too large, but large enough to be 
visible. 

The taste of the painter can be exercised in the selec- 
tion of proper shading colors to suit the location, char- 
acter of the business and the fitness of it for the purpose. 
An undertaker, for instance, should not have his sign 
shaded crimson, neither would it do for the doctor. 
Some sober tones, a compromise between the color of 
the ground and that of the letter always makes a neat 
appearance. 

Double shading in two or more colors is often re- 
sorted to to produce showy signs. 

Probably the neatest effect in shading is to use a 
darker shade of the same color for the underside or 
under parts of the lettering. This gives it a block effect 
which is absent from shading done in one solid color, 
and as shading is done to give an impression of thick- 
ness to the letters, the shading done in the above man- 
ner will show it much truer and better than a solid shade 
would. 

Shadows are sometimes used to good advantage ; un- 
like a shade it is not placed next to the lettering but 
at a distance from it, but connected with it at the bot- 
tom as the shadow of a man or tree or any standing 
object would appear from a given angle. Lettering 
may be outlined with some other color in either thick 
or thin lines all around them and variegated, or the 
bodies painted in two or more colors with or without 
ornaments upon the body. When properly done, this 



374 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

kind of work looks well for certain kinds of signs, but 
to be in taste, it must be suitable to the business or it 
will soon be an eyesore of which the owner will soon 
tire. 

The above directions, it is hoped, will suffice to 
enable the novice who has been reading this to do a 
creditable piece of work if he has familiarized himself 
with the proper formation of letters, and as this advice 
is applicable to all kinds of sign painting from a show 
card to a mammoth bulletin sign no further reference 
as to how to do the work will be made in what follows 
except in so far as a different application of the rules 
given may necessitate further explanations. 

268. The painting of signs on sign boards or on 
wooden, brick or stone buildings may well form a sec- 
tion by itself, and as this forms a branch of the trade 
which gives more employment in all its varieties than 
all the others put together — with the exception of ad- 
vertising bulletin signs (which will be treated sepa- 
rately), it is well worth the closest attention. 

If the sign is to be painted upon a board in the shop 
or upon a building, they should be primed as recom- 
mended for exterior house painting by using nearly 
clear linseed oil (raw) with just enough white lead 
in it to tint it so that it can be plainly seen when ap- 
plied to the lumber. If upon a sign board, the back of it 
should be thoroughly primed, too, in the same man- 
ner as the front in order to keep the water from soak- 
ing up behind it. The next coat of paint should be 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 375 

given fairly stout, with % turpentine mixed v/ith J^ 
raw linseed oil for a thinner, Ith a very small quan- 
tity of good japan drier added to it. The back part of 
the sign should be coated with this too ; these two coats 
will be enough for the back of the sign, but the front 
should have another rather flatter than the usual out- 
door third coat, because a glare is very undesirable 
for a sign ground. For the better class of sign work it 
is better to give the third coat 2/3 raw linseed oil and 
1/3 turpentine put on rather thick, but brushed out thin 
which will give the board a good, even gloss all over 
it. When still tacky, apply a coat of flat color to it, 
which will be held firmly by the partially dried third 
coat, and then there will be no danger of its giving 
away very soon as the building has in all probability 
been already painted; if the paint is In good condition 
the painting of the sign may have to be done upon it 
just as it Is and this very often happens. If a ground 
coat is to be painted upon it for the lettering, give a 
coat of raw linseed oil tinted with the ground coat color 
and when dry it should be given a heavy, well brushed 
outcoat of the ground itself, thinned with half raw oil 
and half turpentine. If the buildings are new and have 
never been painted they should be treated as stated 
under the heading of ^'Exterior Painting," and the 
space to be occupied by the sign coated ove.r with the 
proper ground for it. This ground space should be 
thinned flatter than the rest of the paintin^^. 



376 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

269. Spacing and balancing a space for the sign is 
where the practiced eye of the professional save him 
much time. Generally speaking, and upon the average, 
each letter is supposed to occupy a given space and for 
the purpose of filling up a line, it is safe to cut up the 
number of inches in the space, making due allowance 
for beginning and ending, also for space between the 
words by the number of inches each letter would oc- 
cupy. The painter will dot off the number of inches to 
be occupied by the separate letters on the sign, keeping 
track of the number of them as he goes. Then he will 
roughly sketch out the space each letter will actually oc- 
cupy, making all necessary corrections as to the varia- 
tions already spoken off as existing between the va- 
rious letters and it will be found that the calculation 
based on the supposition that each shall occupy a similar 
sized square will not be found much out of the way, and 
that if there is an exception to the rule it can very soon 
be adjusted by the next rough sketching of it over, and 
making the proper allowances. 

The professional painter will not need to even count 
out the number of his letter spaces, but will sketch 
out his wording at once and will seldom have to efface 
it to make room for a second sketching as it will be 
sufficiently near right to enable him to proceed with the 
lettering and to correct anything wrong in the sketch- 
ing as he paints it out. The novice, however, should 
not attempt this, as it would be too risky for him, and 
until his vision is so well exercised that he can judge of 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 377 

the right sized letters to make to fill up a given space, 
he should not only roughly sketch the letters but mark 
them out in the exact spot which each is to occupy. In 
that way he will be sure to come out alright. 

If there are several lines of work to be done it will be 
well, especially if the lettering is all done with capitals, 
to change the style of each line somewhat. 

It is usual to paint the name of a firm or person own- 
ing a business in larger letters than the rest of the sign. 
Then the line of business itself should be very promi- 
nently displayed, while the details can be painted in 
much smaller letters than either of the two principal 
ones. 

The styles, shadings, etc., referring to the lettering 
were fully noticed in Paragraph 267. 

270. Show cards and muslin sign painting has come 
to be specialized insomuch at least that men who are 
better skilled in the execution of this kind of work than 
others are usually kept at it in all the larger sign shops. 
As now it is quite the fad to have these made and shaded 
with an air brush, it requires a practical use of this tool 
to do good work with it. Much of it is done in tasty 
colors and dainty use of roman lower case, and some 
show considerable ingenuity in the display made. Mus- 
lin work, likewise, requires a peculiar kind of skill ; not 
that it is more difficult than that of the regular sign 
board work, but that the handling is somewhat different, 
being usually done with one-stroke letter brushes and 
off hand, and requires a different application of the 



378 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

knowledge equal to both — of the proper formation of 
letters. 

Muslin is usually stretched tight upon frames and 
sized, although now muslin can be bought all ready 
sized, ready to go to work upon it. As time is money 
and the time required to size and stretch ordinary un- 
sized muslin will much more than make up for the cost 
of that ready prepared, this is now practically the only 
kind used for all this kind of work. 

Muslin sign work, being done at one stroke and off 
hand, is very rapidly done by the experienced ones. 
They are usually employed for hurried work and for a 
temporary purpose, for the announcement of some 
special sale and it is not of so much importance about the 
lasting quality of the work as the looks and speed in 
painting them. In the aggregate, they make up a big 
share of the sign work being done in all sign shops today 
in city or country towns. 

271. Gold signs on wood and glass constitute a class 
of sign work requiring additional skill besides that of 
the ability to form letters properly, which is common 
to all the different branches of the trade. This addi- 
tional skill is that of the proper handling of gold leaf. 
This is not to be acquired in a day, but is the result of 
considerable practice. Some learn it in a much shorter 
time than others, and some never learn it well. Gold is 
so fragile that the least breath will send it flying in all 
directions. But, after all, when its peculiarities are well 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 379 

understood, and the proper care taken, It is noi such a 
difficult thing to learn how to handle it. 

For the purpose of examination gold sign work will 
be taken up under two headings : 

1. Gold signs upon opaque surfaces, such as wood, 
metals or japanned tin, etc., and — 

2. Gilding on glass, where gold instead of being ap- 
plied over a surface as before, is applied under it and 
shows through, requiring a very different method of 
handling in each case. 

2^2. Wood *surfaces, tin (japanned) and painted 
window shade cloth are the surfaces upon which gold 
signs are usually painted ; each requiring much the same 
manipulations in the application of the gold, but some 
variation in preparing the surfaces for the gilding. 

Gold leaf sticks closely to anything that has the least 
greasiness and tackiness; therefore the surface over 
which it is to be applied must be free of the least bit of 
it or else the gold will surely attach itself where it is 
not wanted, and the work spoiled thereby, and it is in 
this respect that the preparation of the surface mainly 
differs between the various surfaces mentioned. 

Signs gilded on wood are usually "smalted and w^hen 
that is the case, as the ground is cut in around the letters 
after they have been gilded, it does not make so much 
difference if some of the gold happens to stick to por- 
tions of the boards besides that of the sizing for the let- 
ters as the cutting in of the ground will cover it over; 
if, however, the surface is to be left in the ground color 



380 Modern Pamte/s Cyclopedia 

over which the gold is appHed, and no smalt is used as 
is sometimes done when a gold sign or ornaments are 
painted upon a building of wood or stone, then great 
care must be taken that the surface will be in a condition 
that the gold shall not stick to it. 

The only proper surfaces for all gilding which is not 
afterward to be cut in is a dead flat, not an egg shell 
gloss even will do, unless it is first deadened or all its 
stickiness killed. 

The usual method of preparing sign boards to be 
gilded is to give them three coats of paint as noted in 
Paragraph 268. The last coat should be given in a 
dark lead or slate color, so that the black ground to be 
cut in afterward can be plainly seen, and no spots will 
then be missed. The last coat must be as nearly flat as it 
is possible to make it, so that it may be properly bound. 
It should have a full week, at least, for hard drying. 
After it has been sand papered as free of brush marks 
as possible (and this sandpapering should have been 
resorted to after each previous coat), it will be ready 
for the sizing. 

Nothing but an old, fat, oil size is to be used for out- 
side exposed work, as nothing else would be able to 
withstand the ravages of the elements. This fat oil 
can be prepared by any one by exposing linseed oil in 
shallow vessels exposed to air and light for a few 
months. It can be bottled up afterward and will always 
remain in a fatty condition. Linseed oil in that condi- 
tion seems to have lost much of its power to absorb oxy- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 381 

gen and should have some good japan dryer added to it 
to make it dry. Unhke other hnseed oil, however, it re- 
mains in a tacky condition for some time, some days 
even before it will eventually dry hard. It is when in 
that partially dried, tacky condition only that it is fit to 
be gilded upon. If gilding is attempted while it is 
sticky and leaves an imprint upon the finger when 
touched, it will come through the gold and dull or tar- 
nish it — when dry, but still tacky, is the proper time to 
apply the gold. If the surface is good and dry when the 
size for the lettering is applied, and one has been careful 
not to touch the ground with the fingers or with any- 
thing greasy the gold can be applied so that it. will stick 
to the sizing only, but as said before, it does not matter 
so much if the sign is smalted. 

In aplying the size it is well to mix with it a little me- 
dium chrome yellow as then there is less chance of 
leaving a part of a letter unsized as it would show the 
omission at a glance. 

It is well to prepare the size and to test it beforehand 
so as to know how long it will take to dry it and how 
long it holds in good condition for the gilding, then to 
bottle it up and label it with its record of drying. Some 
need a quick size ; others again who have large surfaces 
to gild need it to hold the tack a long time and a gilder 
should have a 24-hour, a 48-hour and a 66-hour size. 
The last would be seldom used except upon work where 
the operator could not get back to it for some days 
after applying it. 



382 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

These gold sizes in fat oil can be bought ready pre- 
pared in most of the supply stores. As they are more 
carefully tested and great care taken of having them 
just right, it is much better to buy them in that way 
than to waste the time necessary to prepare them for 
one's self. 

The gilding is done in the same manner as stated in 
Paragraph 146, to which the reader is referred for 
further explanations. 

273. For surfaces which are not to be cut-in and 
for japanned tinware, etc., the surface should be rubbed 
over with whiting after having first been washed over 
with alcohol and a chamois skin to remove any greasi- 
ness. This rubbing over with chalk will deaden the 
ground so that gold will not adhere to it, but care must 
be taken not to touch it as there is sufficient tackiness in 
the touch of the fingers rubbed over the ground to make 
the gold adhere to it sometimes. 

Some take a raw potato and rub over the japanned 
surface with the freshly cut side of it, cutting slices out 
of it and rubbing all over the surface with it before 
sprinkling chalk or whiting over it. The gold size is 
then applied and the gilding is done as upon wood de- 
scribed in the preceding paragraph. After the surplus 
gold has been brushed off and dusted, clean the whiting 
by washing it with a soft sheep's wool sponge and water. 
274. Window shades are frequently used for sign 
work and they are very appropriate to the purpose. 
Usually it is the lower part only that is lettered as the 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 383 

upper and central portion of it is ordinarily rolled up, 
leaving only the lower portion of it visible then — 
at least during business hours. 

If the painting of the sign is to be in oil colors, the 
painting should be laid out and done in precisely the 
same manner as it would be upon a board sign. 

If to be gilded, the surface being always a dead flat, 
hard and free from tack, it is an ideal surface to work 
upon. Unless one has been careless and greased por- 
tions of it the gold will not adhere to its surface and one 
can get a clean-cut edge if a rightly tempered size is 
used, which should be some quick fat oil size, or if 
quicker work is desired, some good gold size japan. 

275. Gilding on glass has been fully explained 
under the heading entitled^ ^'Gilding," in Paragraph 
149, and the reader should carefully read that over for 
e;cplanations of the proper way of applying the leaf 
and other details affecting gilding on glass. 

Cleanliness cannot be too strongly insisted upon as 
the work will surely look lame somewhere if this has 
not been scrupulously attended to before the gilding is 
commenced. Rub the whole surface of the glass with 
alcohol that no grease or dirt of any kind may come 
between the gold and the glass as it will show through 
it. It is well to also clean the outside of the glass as 
sometimes specks which one sees and which it is thought 
are on the outside may possibly be on the inside instead 
— besides it is better to have it clear to see through. 



384 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

The design of the lettering and ornamentation 
should first be drawn upon manilla paper and pricked 
through with a tracing wheel or needle to make a pounce 
of it; then sandpapered on the reverse side to open up 
the holes better and so they will not clog up. Take 
the design and using it right side up proceed, to pounce 
it on with whiting upon the outside of the glass. As 
this whiting will show very faint, it is better to take 
some tailor's chalk or a piece of hard soap sharpened 
up to an edge and mark out the outlines of the design- 
ing, as otherwise the wind and other agencies might 
obliterate them. 

Then proceed to apply the gold leaf on the inside so 
that every part of the outlined design on the outside 
shall have been covered over with the leaf and in an 
hour or two afterward follow up with another coat of 
gold leaf to make sure that no part has been overlooked 
and to cover up all cracks and defects in the leaf put on 
before. This double gilding is the only sure way of 
making a creditable job of gilding. 

When dry the gilding is ready for the backing. Now 
take the design and pounce it on the inside, upon the 
back side of it so that it will correspond to what was 
outlined on the outside and in as nearly the same place 
as it occupied there. The pouncing should be done with 
some dark dry color as it will show plainer upon the 
gold. Some gilders use black asphaltum varnish to 
back up gold with, but a good coach black in japan 
thinned with carriage japan and turpentine or 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 385 

a black rubbing varnish will be found better, and 
will work better under the brush. Two coats should 
be given. Some gilders use a chrome yellow ground 
in japan and thinned as stated before instead 
of a black. It is certainly more sensible, as should an 
unseen defect be in the leaf the chrome yellow backing 
will render it unnoticeable while the black will show 
through it. 

In a day or two wash the surplus gold off and the 
sign will be ready for the shading if any is to go on, or 
for outlining, etc. This will give a good plain, solid 
burnished gold sign. 

2y6. Ornaments in matt gold for parts of letters, 
or for shading them' are quite the fad now. It is being 
used in shaping letters into a bevelled appearance, and 
in scroll work on the inside of the letter, or for making 
the center all matt, and hundreds of variations. These 
effects of burnished gold and matt are fine if well made 
and in the beveled letters often would fool one who did 
not know how such effects are produced. 

The process is very simple and easy. All the parts 
which are to show matt are first painted on the glass 
with linseed oil and turpentine mixed together so as 
to work freely under the brush ; a very little lemon or 
medium chrome yellow should be added, but not suf- 
ficient to show opaque. The painting must be trans- 
parent to allow the gold to show through it, or the 
beautiful effect would be lost. 



386 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

The introduction of other ornamenting material in 
the make-up of a glass gilt sign, especially in those that 
are framed and used for advertising purposes, is fre- 
quent. For such purposes circular and any other form 
of openings are left for the filling of pearl flakes, flit- 
ters, etc. These openings are surrounded with a gold 
line. Sometimes photographs are inserted in them. 
Such make variety and in these advertising framed 
glass signs license runs riot on trying to obtain new 
efifects. As they are usually expensive and hung in 
oflices where they can be closely examined, and at lei- 
sure, fancy styles of lettering may be indulged in to al- 
most any extent one can wish for ; so that would appear 
ridiculous in a staid and sober street business sign, will 
be all right for this class of work. 

2yy. Advertising signs can be arranged under two 
heads: First, those done upon buildings, either on 
wood or brick, and, second, those done on bulletin 
boards specially erected for such a purpose. 

It is not intended here to go into all the details of 
this great business, as it would need too much of the 
space of this manual. This business is usually made a 
separate one, and many are usually under the control 
of large concerns who have contracts for advertising all 
over the country, keeping many gangs of men at work 
during the open season. 

While the general sign painter in the city will not be 
greatly interested in them, the sign painter in the 
smaller towns may derive quite a revenue from the erec- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 387 

tlon of bulletin sign boards upon the leading entrance 
streets to his town and the yearly rent derived from 
these will make quite an item in his bank account. Few 
towns are so small that its merchants will not want to 
be represented upon its bulletin and it will be easy to 
get them into it, if a few of the leading ones can be in- 
duced to make a start at it. At any rate, the nearby big 
town clothiers, dry goods and other houses will all be 
eager for good spaces upon them. Besides general ad- 
vertisers, if written to, and proper explanation is given, 
will gladly avail themselves of the opportunity which 
usually will cost them less than the big advertising 
firms could afford to take similar work for, away from 
the city, and under big expense in sending out gangs ot 
men for the erection of bulletins and to do the painting. 

These bulletins can be made uniform in size and the 
space let at so much per square foot, including the 
painting and taking care of it. Or they can be made to 
suit the ideas of the advertiser. They can be made of 
wood all through or with a wooden frame to which is 
nailed galvanized iron sheets. 

The wood should have three coats of paint upon the 
face, and for protection to the boards and tQ keep them 
from warping, should have two coats on the back. The 
galvanized iron should be given one coat of red lead 
priming and two coats of lead paint over it and when 
done in that way will hold the paint without scaling, 
as well as wood. 



388 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

There is more display for skill in bulletin advertis- 
ing sign work than is needed in ordinary commercial 
sign lettering. There is a possibility in the use of colors 
here not afforded in regular sign work and one should 
be well versed in the proper harmonizing of these. 
As much pictorial work of nearly everything manufac- 
tured under the sun, the advertising sign painter should 
be able to draw and paint with accuracy anything and 
everything that may be demanded of him from a rock- 
ing chair to a threshing machine or a building, figures 
in the bust or full drawn, landscapes, etc. Of course, 
he will not be expected to produce artistic work in all 
that the word implies, but the nearer he can call his 
productions by that name, the better he will please his 
customers as well as himself. 

Work upon the bulletin boards is usually done in the 
ordinary way as it would be in the shop upon the pre- 
pared ground, or it may be done as it is usually done 
upon the outside walls of brick or frame buildings by 
painting on the design and lettering first with a heavy 
color made short so it will cut to an edge without run- 
ning, by using about one half kerosene oil with linseed 
oil and benzine in the thinning. This sets quickly 
upon unpainted surfaces especially, and can be im- 
mediately worked upon and cut in with the ground 
color which is usually black, and being prepared from 
lamp black covers solidly in one coat. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 389 

QUESTIONS ON SIGN PAINTING. 

260. What is said regarding" sign painting? 

261. How many branches can sign painting be di- 
vided into? 

262. What should a sign painter know? 

263. What material is needed for sign painting? 

264. What are the principal tools required in a sign 
painting shop? 

265. How are letters made? 

266. How many kinds of primary forms of letters 
are there? 

267. How are letters shaded? 

268. How are signs painted on sign boards and 
upon buildings ? 

269. How should the lettering be spaced upon each 
line? 

270. How are show cards and muslin signs pre- 
pared and painted? 

271. What is said of gold sign painting? 

2y2. How are gold signs on wood, etc., painted? 
2^2)- How are japanned tin surfaces gilded ? 

274. How are gold signs painted on window 
shades ? 

275. How should the glass surface be prepared for 
the gilding? 

276. How is the matting of the gold surface pro- 
duced upon glass gilding? 

277. Tell what is said concerning advertising signs 
and their painting? 



390 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

STAINS AND STAINING. 

278. Staining, as the name indicates, is the opera- 
tion through which certain substances are changed from 
their natural color to another. Unlike painting, it does 
not cover, or at least should not cover up, any of the 
designs which may be upon the surface the staining is 
applied to; so woods which are the principal material 
upon which the painter usually applies stains, should 
show its veins, pores and other details as clearly after 
the staining as before its application. Therefore, it is 
easily to be seen where the difference lies between it 
and graining; as some people frequently confound the 
two terms. Staining does not pretend to make another 
wood out of the one it is applied over, or, at least, to 
change its veining into an entirely different wood, while 
graining doe*^ It is true that the dividing line is rather 
difficult to see at times and that some graining is done 
sometimes by staining, but it is not the prime object of 
it, and the great bulk of it is done for a different object 
in view. 

279. Many woods change their colors greatly by 
aging. Oak, for instance, will become almost a black in 
time, maple will become of a deep buff brown. Ma- 
hogany will take on a deep burnt sienna red brown tone 
and so on through the whole list of woods. 

Now it is impossible to age wood much faster than 
nature does it and when the effect of age is desired 
upon new wood the only way open to obtain the results 
at once, without waiting, is by staining the woods to 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 391 

the tone they would have taken by waiting patiently 
several hundred years to elapse. Again, many people 
desire certain tones and colors in a room to harmonize 
carpets and wall hangings into a good combination, and 
such do not hesitate to order furniture or wood work 
to be stained in any color of the rainbow they have a 
fancy for. It certainly is not in good taste to stain 
woods in colors which do not belong to them, as blues, 
greens, etc., and while this is a free country, etc., as 
long as a person is not sent to the penitentiary for com- 
mitting outrages against nature, nor to insane asylums, 
it is very probable that the practice will go on undis- 
turbed. But it is vulgarity, to say the least of the prac- 
tice, and painters should not encourage it. 

Stains are useful and fill a legitimate object in dec- 
oration when properly used, and many an ugly-looking, 
cheaply finished up house inside woodwork can be made 
more cheery and less of an eyesore if colored up by 
staining. If graining is permissible — and it is — with 
as much good reason for it as the representation of ob- 
jects and scenes upon canvas to look at and enjoy — 
then for the very same reason it, too, has its "raison 
d'etre," for it is enjoyable and agreeable to the owner 
or it would not be put there. Graining may, and would 
be, objectionable if done in any but the colors which 
naturally belong to the wood it imitates, and for the 
same reason that a painter's picture of a green horse 
would not be, nor should not be admired. It has been 
stated before that the line of demarcation between 



392 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

graining and staining was hard to distinguish at times, 
and it is as much of the staining of mahogany, mottled 
maple, etc., partakes more or less of that character. 

280. So, to distinguish it from the ordinary stain- 
'ing of wood which is done all over without any special 
preparation, it will be called grained staining. This 
grained staining is done so as to change the character 
of the wood being stained over so that it may look more 
natural and resemble the wood which the stain is sup- 
posed to transform it in — in its veinings. Now, the 
cheap, soft maple has none of the marking of mottled 
maple, nor has birch any of the feathered markings of 
mahogany which it is made to imitate so much and so 
that ihe mahogany staining which is done over it may 
appear more natural and pleasing these mottlings are 
put on the bare wood before the staining proper is put 
on all over. Even veinings can be put in to good effect 
with a fan overgraining brush and some fine imitation 
of many woods can be made upon the bare wood in 
stain graining. The wood over which such is made, 
however, must not possess any marked character of. 
their own as they would be brought out by the stain and 
a double appearance of different veinings would look 
ridiculous. 

281. There are two ways of staining wood, or 
rather of preparing the coloring matter used in making 
the stains used over them. Both have their uses and 
are better adapted for certain purposes than the other. 



Modern Painte/s Cyclopedia 393 

One is to thin the col'^*- with linseed oil and the other 
is to dissolve it in water. 

282. Oil stains have an advantage over water stains 
in that upon the bare wood it acts as a primer and 
partial filler and that they do not raise the grain or pores 
of the wood — which water stains certainly do. They 
protect the wood from humidity and mishaps of various 
kinds, and but that oil stains are not as penetrating as 
water stains are, and for that reason are easier marred 
and damaged, they would be superior for general use in 
hardwood staining. On this account mainly, notwith- 
standing their good traits otherwise, they are seldom 
used except for the staining of pine partitions and soft 
woods of little value, manufacturers of furniture and 
other hardwood finishers preferring the great draw- 
back of the raised grain to cut down, to the danger of 
having their work spoiled by the shallowness of the 
staining. Another reason also is that as most of the 
oil stains are prepared from finely ground pigments, 
which all have more or less opacity, as siennas and 
umbers, although called transparent or semi-transpar- 
ent, they do not give as clear a tone of stain as the water 
stains do, so that a portion of the details in the veining 
of the woods stained with them is lost or hid by the 
opacity of the pigment in the stain. 

283. Water stains dissolve the substances used in 
the making of them and this solution must be entire, or 
when partial only, as when obtained by maceration or 
percolation, the stain should be run through a funnel 



394 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

filled with percolating paper to free it from specks of 
undissolved foreign matter. 

A good water stain should hold the dissolved color- 
ing matter in solution without precipitation, or it will 
be of little value unless used with constant agitation 
and even then it will hardly make a satisfactory stain 
free from specking, so such should be avoided. For 
this reason the earth colors, such as the siennas, umber, 
etc., which are not soluble in water but would be only 
held in suspension in it, are not fitted for water stains, 
however good they may be for oil stains. Therefore, 
the substances required for the making of water stains 
must be entirely soluble in it, or at least the substance 
used must have a portion of it that is soluble and which 
can be extracted out of it by either maceration or 
percolation. 

284. The stains which are made from soluble sub- 
stances as some of the aniline dyes — alizarine, purpu- 
rine, nigrine, etc., which are entirely soluble are easily 
made by simply dissolving them with hot water, usually. 

Those made by percolation are also easily made, the 
ingredients to be percolated being simply placed in a 
funnel which has been first covered inside with an un- 
sized percolating paper through which the dissolved 
stain will pass but which will hold back any undis- 
solved matter. 

The stains made by maceration require considerable 
more time, some of them requiring fully two weeks to 
become entirely dissolved. When so dissolved, they 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 395 

should be filtered through filtering paper as stated for 
the percolation process. 

Sometimes the process of maceration and of solution 
is hastened by boiling, but again in others it would ruin 
the stain, so that in subsequent paragraphs where re- 
cipes are given as to how to prepare them from various 
substances unless boiling is plainly stated to be the 
proper way of dissolving the coloring, cold or only mod- 
erately warm water should be used. 

With the above instructions it is hoped that there 
will be no trouble in obtaining good results in the pre- 
paring of stains from the formulas given. 

Many of the formulas given are of old time tested 
quality and are good — but too tedious to make in our 
twentieth century times, but there are some who still 
want them. The list of such has been abridged, how- 
ever, giving only a few for each color of wood. Few 
persons can afford to spare the time necessary for their 
preparation, and upon the whole it is a question as to 
whether it will pay them to do so, when they can be 
made ready for use in a few minutes from the pre- 
pared dyes or stains, all ready made, and for sale at 
most of the supply stores. 

285. There is a class of prepared goods which have 
been used in immense quantities of late — i. e., the 
varnish stains. Most of them are sold under fancy 
names, copyrighted by their manufacturers, but which 
is the same thing after all. They usually consist of 
cheap varnish, colored with some dye, soluble in volatile 



396 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

oils. Why they are used to the extent they are is a con- 
undrum, accountable for only because of the extensive 
advertising given them. 

The work done with such can never be as good as 
that done with a previous stain covered over with var- 
nish of good quality afterward. All varnish stains set 
quickly with the consequence that the laps of the brush 
show all over the job and make it look uneven, while, 
had the stain been applied first it would have a much 
better appearance — besides if finished over with a good 
coat of varnish the assurance that the job will remain 
good for sometime afterward, especially upon floors, 
etc., where good quality for wear counts for something. 

RECIPES FOR MAKING OIL STAINS. 

286. Any finely ground transparent or semi-trans- 
parent color ground in oil will make an oil stain. If a 
dark color is wanted it must not be thinned with as 
much oil; if a light colored stain of it is desired, then 
it must be thinned out with more. 

All the aniline and alizarine colors made which are 
soluble in oil can also be used to make oil stains so that 
an immense range can be had. These are not quite as 
permanent as those made from oil colors — but those 
made from alizarine are dependable. 

I. Oil Oak Stain. — (Light oak.) Raw sienna, raw 
umber; 2/3 of the former, 1/3 of the latter. Thin with 
raw linseed oil to suit. Add enough turpentine to make 
it set and a little liquid dryer. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 397 

2. Oil Oak Stain.-^{Dsivk oak.) Raw sienna, raw 
umber, burnt umber; 1/3 of each. Thin with raw lin- 
seed oil as stated in No. i. 

3. Oil Walnut Stain. — Burnt umber or Vandyke 
brown, thinned as directed for No. i. Add more drier 

if Vandyke brown is used. 

4. Ebony. — Drop black, thinned with raw linseed 
oil, turpentine, and liquid dryer. 

All colors of stains obtainable from either transparent 
oil colors or aniline soluble in oil in any shade desired 
can all be made in the manner stated above and those 
should suffice as an indication as to the "how to make 
them." 

SPIRIT STAINS. 

287. Alcoholic stains are but little used, not only on 
account of their expense but because they raise the grain 
of the wood as bad as water stains do. Some instru- 
ment manufacturers, however, want them as well as 
others tor special uses, so a few of the more important 
ones are given. 

5. Yellozv. — Tumeric pow^der, i oz. ; alcohol, i 
pint. Digest four days, shaking occasionally and strain. 
To be brushed over the wood until the color wanted is 
obtained. 

6. Yellozvish Red, Orange. — Add an alcoholic solu- 
tion of dragon's blood to the degree of redness wanted 
to the above ; apply it in the same way. 

7. Mahogany. — Dragon's blood, i}^ ounces; car- 
bonate of soda, y^ ounce ; alcohol, i pint. Digest a few 



398 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

days to make it dissolve, filter and brush it over after the 
application of the following wash : Wash over the sur- 
face with dilute nitric acid. 

8. Ebony. — Dissolve extract of logwood in dena- 
tured or wood alcohol to any shade desired. Strain and 
apply. The color is afterward developed by washing 
over the surface with tincture of muriate of iron. 

ANILINE DYES ON STAINS. 

288. Many persons are afraid of the name aniline 
as it is the equivalent of "fugitiveness" in their thoughts, 
and the poorer kinds certainly are. But some are very 
useful and fairly permanent when properly put on and 
such as are made from alizarine are as permanent or 
even more so than similar ones made from any other 
substances known. 

As each manufacturer makes these by processes some- 
what different and requiring different treatment in fix- 
ing in the use of mordants, acids or alkalies, it will be 
well to ascertain exactly what is needed by asking the 
dealer about it, as what would be good for one would 
harm another. 

Another great trouble in these dyes is that there is no 
nomenclature known among dealers — each manufac- 
turer having adopted a name of his own for the colors 
he produces, so that there is an endless row of trouble 
ahead for those who are looking up a new line of these 
colors to work with. He has to learn over and to for- 
get all about what he had learned before in order to 



Modem Painter's Cyclopedia 399 

adapt himself to the different handling required for 
those made by a different manufacturer. 

Those soluble in linseed oil or turpentine require the 
liquids to be moderately warmed and some little time to 
perfect the solution. Those soluble in water usually 
are readily dissolved and below is given a typical recipe 
to indicate how they are all made and which will suffice 
for all the others. 

9. Mahogany. — Bismarck brown, i ounce; water, 
3 quarts. Let the water be boiled, pour upon the Bis- 
mark brown and dissolve. It is ready to use as soon as 
it has cooled. 

WATER STAINS. 

289. Really under the heading of water stains most 
of the aniline dye stains really belong, but it was thought 
best to treat of them separately and to place under this 
heading the old stand-by recipes which have been in 
use, some of them, from time immemorial. The list is 
a large one to pick from, but as these are now but sel- 
dom used, it has been cut down to one or two sample 
ones for each of the leading woods. 

10. Light oak. — Quercitron bark, 2 oz. ; water, i 
gallon ; macerate for two weeks, filter and use. 

11. Dark oak. — Quercitron bark, 4 oz. ; water i 
gallon ; macerate for two weeks, filter and use. 

12. IValnut No. i. — Permanganate of potash, i 
ounce ; Epsom salt, i ounce ; water, i quart ; dissolve, 
strain and apply, repeating until sufficiently darkened. 

13. Walnut, No. 2. — Nutgalls, crushed, 3 ounces; 



400 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

concentrated lye, 4 ounces; Vandyke brown, (dry) 8 
ounces ; boil till the bulk is reduced one half. When cold 
apply to the wood with a cloth or pad. 

14. Mahogany, No, i, — Fustie chips, 8 ounces; 
madder root, i pound ; water, two gallons. Boil for two 
or three hours ; strain and apply boiling hot. 

15. Mahogany, No. 2. — Make a decoction of log- 
wood chips by boiling them in a closely covered vessel 
for two hours in twice their bulk of water ; strain ; add 
a small quantity of chloride of tin ; this will give it red- 
ness. Be your own judge when to stop. Apply two 
coats. 

16. Cherry. — Spanish anetto, i pound; concentra- 
ted lye, I ounce ; boil for half an hour, boil more to con- 
centrate it. Gamboge added to it will concentrate it. 

17. Ebony, No. i. — Extract of logwood, 3 pounds; 
concentrated lye, i pound; water, seven pounds; dis- 
solve by boiling, strain and apply hot or cold. When 
dry go over the work with a strong solution of vinegar 
and iron. 

18. Ebony, No. 2. — Sulphate of iron, J4 pound; 
Chinese blue, 2 ounces; nutgalls, 3 ounces; extract of 
logwood, 2 pounds; vinegar, i gallon; carbonate of 
iron, J4 pound. Boil over a slow fire for two or three 
hours, strain and apply hot or cold. 

19. Rosewood. — Any of the mahogany stains will 
make a rosewood stain if applied over and over until the 
proper depth has been attained and then stained over 
with an ebony stain, very lightly put on. Then after- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 401 

ward run over with a camel's hair brush loaded with the 
ebony dye in irregular veins all over the surface. The 
grain of the natural wood being straggling and occur- 
ring in a haphazard sort of way it should be imitated as 
close as possible. 

20. Crimson. — Biazilwood, pulverized, i pound; 
water, 3 pounds; cochineal, ^ ounce; boil the Brazil- 
wood with the water for half an hour. Strain and add 
the cochineal. Boil gently for another half hour; let it 
cool and it is fit for use. 

21. Violet. — ]\Iake a solution of orchil and soluble 
indigo blue of such strength as required. Strain and 
apply when cold. 

22. Blue. — Indigo blue, 3 ounces; sulphuric acid, I 
pound. Put the two together in a porcelain dish and let 
the indigo dissolve, which will take twenty-four hours 
or more. Shake it up occasionally to hasten the pro- 
cess. Add a pint of boiling water and strain, applying 
the stain to the wood while hot. Before the indigo 
stain has completely dried, wash over the surface with a 
solution made of 3 ounces of cream of tartar in one 
quart of water. 

The above will suffice to give an idea of the trouble 
and difficulty in making the easiest ones made of the old 
timers. It is much easier to use the ones ready preparer' 
and cheaper in the end. 

QUESTIONS AS TO STAINING AND STAINS. 

278. What is said of staining? 

279. Why is staining resorted to? 



402 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

280. What is grained staining? 

281. How many different methods of staining are 
there ? 

282. Where are stains in oil most useful ? 

283. What kinds of woods require water stains? 

284. How are water stains made? 

285. What are varnish stains? 

286. Oil stains. — Recipes, how^ to make them. 

287. Spirit stains. — Recipes, how to make them. 

288. Aniline stains. — Recipe, how to make them. 

289. Water stains. — Recipes, how to make them. 

STENCILS AND STENCILLING. 

290. This is the stencil age. This method of em- 
bellishment in ornamenting surfaces is becoming more 
and more popular and it has passed from the exclusive 
use of the decorator into common household use by 
every one having something in the home worthy of 
being made more beautiful by using them. In other 
words it has become a fad and with the history of past 
fads in mind, the time will come when it will come to a 
stop from the very excesses to which it is put. It will, of 
course be overdone, and that, as other fads before that 
are gone and been forgotten, will once more be left 
where it has a legitimate existence into the hands of 
professional decorators. 

Stencils, in repeated and conventional decoration, will 
always be used. One could almost assert that ever since 
decoration has been introduced into the world that in 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 403 

all probabilities stencils were used in repeating designs, 
and some of the remnants which have been preserved 
unto our day which are found in museums of antiquities, 
w^ould indicate that the ancients were not ignorant of its 
use. 

291. Stencils are used for many purposes which the 
subject matter of this book does not treat upon, such as 
decorating of textile fabrics, commercial stencils used in 
marking of boxes, barrels, etc. Stencils therefore will 
be treated from the standpoint of the decorator and the 
uses he can make of them in either -water or oil colors. 
Stencils are also extensively used in making numerous 
duplicates of a given sign by sign painters, either for use 
upon muslin signs or boards in one or many colors. 

MATERIAL USED IN CUTTING STENCILS. 

292. The material used in the making of stencils 
differs according as to what use they are intended for. 

Sheet brass is used for commercial purposes and 
would be the best for the decorator too, but for its cost 
and the difficulty of cutting them. 

A specially prepared resined clear, or rather semi- 
transparent paper, is much used for the purpose by the 
decorators. This paper cuts a very smooth edge and 
being tough the ties do not break easily. 

Good manilla drafting paper is also very useful and 
while not sized like the resin paper above, after it has 
been coated over with two good coats of orange shellac 
it will withstand the pouncing of the stencil brush about 



404 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

as well and as long as the specially prepared resin paper 
will. 

Cartridge paper, not too thick, makes an excellent 
material upon which to cut stencils. 

Printer's press bedding manilla paper is also much 
used and can be procured at any printing office when 
possibly some of the others might not. The above pa- 
per is tough and pliable and but that it stretches some- 
what too readily, it is the equal of the others in all other 
respects. It is well to give it a coat of linseed oil on 
both sides before it is shellacked, as after such a coating 
it is not so likely to stretch. 

To cut the stencils upon, a smooth level surface hard 
enough to not be dented by the knife must be procured. 

Most decorators prefer a piece of plate glass. Some 
use sheet tin and for a short time no doubt that may be 
best, but tin soon gets scratched over when the knife will 
catch and a clean cut line is then out of the question. 

A lignum vitae block well smoothed is the best, but 
such are not readily obtained anywhere while plate glass 
can and for this reason if no other it is more used and 
with good success than any other. 

A good stock of stencil brushes from ^ inch to iJ/4 
inches (see Figs. i8 and 19) are indispensable in order 
to insure good clean work. The larger ones are used 
mainly upon duplicated muslin signs, some use as large 
as a 2 inch brush for this purpose as these will hold 
enough color to coat over the stencil without refilling. 
Punches for cutting round holes. The colors used in 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 405 

either water or oil are the whole list of pigments useful 
in either classes. Some charcoal and drawing crayons 
to design the ornaments to be cut out and of course, all 
the requisite thinners for the colors, as linseed oil, tur- 
pentine and orange shellac varnish. 

Last, but not least, some good stencil knife. While it 
is possible to cut a stencil with an ordinary pocket knife, 
the blades in most of these are not formed just right to 
cut stencils quickly, nor will the cuts made be as clean 
as the ones which are specially prepared for this purpose 
and which are found for sale in any of the larger supply 
stores. 

293. It is always best to draw the design upon the 
stencil paper which is about to be cut before the paper is 
oiled when this is necessary as in the printer's press bed- 
ding manilla paper. This is unnecessary for all the 
others mentioned, but all should have at least one if not 
two coats of orange shellac given them after the cutting. 
Where a stencil is to be used over and over a good many 
times in water colors, especially, it will be well to give 
them two coats at least. The constant wetting other- 
wise will make them flabby and it is impossible to make 
a good showing with such, and much valuable time will 
have to be wasted in waiting for them to dry before they 
can be safely used again. 

294. The designing of a stencil will depend upon 
the use it is intended for. It may be a simple fillet or 
serpentine line or it may be the most intricate of designs 
in one or many colors. 



406 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



If in one color only, the whole of the design is cut out 
upon the one stencil — excepting that what are known as 
ties, which must be left here and there to hold the design 
together, and to stiffen it up. Those ties instead of de- 
tracting from the beauty of the finish, are really helpful 
in producing effects not otherwise obtainable and in the 
hands of the skillful designer instead of proving a hin- 
drance as many suppose them to be, they will enhance 
the beauty of the design. Even the human face and 
form can be produced in one color stencils with fine ef- 
fects by the judicious selection of the proper place for 
putting in the ties. 

It is frequently necessary to leave ties in a stencil 
where color must be used in order to hold it together. 
In such a case the ties must be filled in by hand. As the 
texture of the paint put in with the pouncing of the sten- 
cil brush some Httle care will have to be exercised in 
order to put the color in with a brush that it does not dif- 
fer too much from the rest of it to be noticed and it will 
be well to use the stencil brush itself as much as possible 
in pouncing them over in order that the coloring may 
look all alike. 

295. Below are given a few illustrations of easy 
stencils to make. In Fig. loi and Fig. 102 are shown 



^ %r^ 


1 %.rr 


vr^ 


^^iU^ i 


•"1 i 


^M 


-1^11 


g. 101. 


• 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



407 



some simple one color stencils, supplemented by hand 
painted lines. 



9. jOifi. ^ .tfi 



n2/ 



Fig. 103. 

Stencils in one color can be made more attractive by 
the use of varied coloring of the ground coats over 
which they are placed, Figs. 103 and 104. The upper 




Fig. 103. 




Fig. 104. 
part in both those designs being in a deeper tone than 
that of the lower half. These are also supplemented 
with hand painted lines. 



408 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



In Fig. 105 the middle portion is painted of a deeper 
tone, also the rest of it, and the herring bone section of 




»»» 



^»»»> 



5r^it5^ 



Fig. 105. 

it must have separate small hand painted lines painted 
on each side of it. In the figure the herring bone shows 




>.♦ •n.*;^ . ^.♦. -J .♦.€•> 







Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 409 

in the white, but this would necessitate an extra stencil 
and is unnecessary as the black or whatever color is used 
will cover it up and it may as well be painted all over 
with the rest of it above. A broader hand painted line 
above between the upper broken line and at the bottom 
another finer hand painted line, finishes the stencil. 

In Fig. 1 06 is shown a combination of a hand painted 
molding and of a one color stencil below it or the stencil 
may be placed below a plaster molding properly colored. 
This design has only two small hand painted lines. 

One color stencils may be made more effective some- 
times by using different colors or tones of one color in 
different parts of it. This requires but little more addi- 
tional time in its execution. The different colors or 
tones must each be put on with different stencil brushes 
is all the difference. 

296. In preparing stencils where more than one is 
used in the same color, all that will be required of the 
second one will be to draw and cut out the parts which 
show as ties in the first one. This gives the effect of 
solid hand painted work and lines can be worked out in 
stencils so as to resemble hand painted lines in the same 
manner. 

297. If two or more colors are to be used in stencil 
work, a separate stencil must be made for each color 
used. Great care must be taken that each stencil regis- 
ters perfectly over each other and an allowance must be 
made of say 1/32 part of an inch so as to insure the cov- 
ering over and good joining of the two or more colors. 



410 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

The ties in such a case are of no importance as the next 
stencil will cover them over. Some beautiful work is 
done in multi-color stencils which will sometimes puz- 
zle the inexperienced and set them at guessing whether 
the work is not hand made. An experienced stencil cut- 
ter can obtain some very close imitations of hand work 
in that way and the sign painters obtain really better 
looking work by the use of several stencils than is 
usually done by hand in all but the highest priced work. 

298. The designs for the several stencils or for the 
single ones having been drawn out in full upon the face 
of the stencil paper, the sheet should be placed upon the 
plate glass or lignum vitse block or whatever the cutter 
has decided to use to cut upon. Then with the set of 3 
cutting knives provided of the specially made ones men- 
tioned the cutter proceeds to cut out all of the design 
with the exception of the ties already mentioned. While 
the stencil cutting set of knives is not absolutely neces- 
sary, where one has considerable stencil cutting to do, 
he will find it very poor economy in trying to do his 
work with an ordinary knife, nor will his stencils look as 
well, as no matter how careful he may be there will be 
some ragged edges. 

The round holes, especially the smaller ones, are 
much better and quicker made with a punch. The ordi- 
nary harness maker leather punches are the best for the 
purpose. The stencil should be placed over a level 
wooden block and the punch struck with a hammer. 
Being hollow the paper is forced up it and when done 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 411 

with it, a pencil will push it out of the punch. One 
should be used with it. The stencil bruch should be dip- 
various ones from %. upward to an inch. When a circle 
is larger than that they can be cut with a knife much 
easier than the smaller ones. 

When the stencilling is done in several colors and re- 
quires several stencils to be cut, it has already been 
stated that they must register perfectly over each other 
or the work will be imperfect. This should be attended 
to in the drawing out of the design, but registering 
guide marks should be cut in to enable the operator 
when shifting it to a new position to so place it that it 
will be just right otherwise no matter how well the de- 
sign has been drawn nor how perfect each stencil may 
register with the others, a botchy effect will be produced 
by the unevenness of the lines. 

299. The stencils having been cut should now re- 
ceive the coats of shellac varnish already mentioned. 
Orange shellac is the best to use as it is stronger than 
the white. It should be brushed over carefully over both 
sides of the stencils and these should be hung up to dry 
which will require 8 to 12 hours according to the sea- 
sons. If the first coat has been put on in the morning, a 
second coat can be put on in the evening when they will 
be tit for use the next morning. 

The above is far the better way. Many who are in a 
hurry will give each coat one hour apart and will be 
using them perhaps within another hour, but they will 
not stand the hardship of those who have been done in 



412 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

the slower way and broken ties and limber stencils will 
hardly compensate for the waiting of a few hours lon- 
ger. 

300. Rooms may look square but may not be and 
belie their appearance. So to make sure of good results 
a chalk line should be used and a plumb bob to guide one 
in making perpendicular lines with it. If the ground is 
to be parti-colored this should of course have been done 
before the stencilling begins. All the lines for the va- 
rious stencils to be used in a room having been struck, 
the work of painting them on may begin. 

301. The colors used may be either water colors or 
colors in oil. If they are water colors they should.be 
mixed somewhat thicker than is usual for ordinary ap- 
plication upon the walls, also a trifle more of the binder 
should be used with it. The stencil brush should be dip- 
ped in the color and then rubbed out upon a board or 
sheet of metal in order to work the color in well and to 
remove a superabundance of it on its surface which 
would blur and make a blotch upon the stencil. It is 
hard to describe exactly how much or how little should 
the brush hold and a few trials by the operator will soon 
teach him the proper quantity his brush should carry. 
The colors being ready he should place his stencil on the 
line at the proper part for the beginning. If the stencil 
is a large one he should first fasten it on to the wall with 
small thumb tacks made on purpose for this use. These ' 
tacks' have a wide face somewhat similar to those used 
in fastening drawing paper to boards. The points are 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 413 

short and will not hurt the plaster. This fastening in- 
sures the stencil against slipping and relieves the opera- 
tor from having to hold it at arm's length, which is a 
tiresome job, on a ceiling especially. It gives him the 
use of both of his hands and enables him to press down 
the stencil close to the plaster ahead of the other w^hich 
holds the brush w^ith color. The color should not be 
brused over as in ordinary painting as that would surely 
cause some of the color to run under the edges of the 
stencil and make a blur, but should be pecked on in 
much the same way as a wall stippler is used. The left 
hand of the operator being free if he has fastened the 
stencil on the wall as directed above can slip along just 
ahead of the brush to smooth and hold down the paper 
very closely to the w^all and much better work will result 
from it. Clean cut outline is the chief beauty of good 
stencilling and ragged edges are pretty sure indications 
of a second class workman. 

302. All that was stated in the preceding paragraph 
excepting as to the preparation of the colors, applies for 
work done in oil colors. The same care must be exer- 
cised all the way through the stencilling. The stencils 
in either case should be cleaned off of accumulations of 
colors near the edges as they would in time prevent the 
close contact required to make a clean cut edge. 

The color should be mixed much thicker than for wall 
work and either flat or semi-flat to match the character 
of the rest of the walls. The brush should be very care- 
fully rubbed over the board at each new filiing to re- 



414 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

move the surplus which would surely blur and with 
pecking strokes the color should be applied over the 
stencils. After the color has been mostly worked off 
the brush there is not so much danger of its running 
under the edge of the stencil and it may be used in a 
twirling way over it without much danger in the hands 
of a workman who is used to it; the novice, however, is 
not advised to undertake it till he is sure of himself and 
of the proper condition when it will be safe to do so. 

If the above directions are followed out there is no 
reason why a painter of ordinary ability may not do a 
great deal of decorative work which he could easily do 
at a remunerative price for himself, yet cheap enough as 
to interest many property owners who have an idea that 
all such work, which is ordinarily classed as fresco 
painting is too costly for the pockets of ordinary people. 
Many fairly good decorators have become such by first 
commencing to do some very plain stencilling then 
gradually growing into more difficult phases of it until 
familiarity developed stencilling with a blending of free 
hand and pouncings. When a painter has once started 
on the road (no matter how low) to decoration, he is 
sure to become so interested and to so love the work 
that he will use every effort to learn more and more un- 
til he finally becomes truly worthy of the name of 
Decorator. 

QUESTIONS ON STENCILS AND STENCILLINGS. 

290. What is said of stencils ? 

291. What are stencils chiefly used upon? 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 415 

292. What materials are used for the making of 
stencils ? 

293. How is stencil paper prepared for the cutting? 

294. How are the stencils designed and tied ? 

295. Give examples of how one color stencils can be 
used in and over varied colored grounds ? 

296. What effect is produced by work done in two 
stencils in one color ? 

297. What effects are produced by work done in 
two or more stencils in various colors ? 

298. How are stencils cut? 

299. How are stencils shellacked? 

300. How are rooms prepared for the stencilling? 

301. How are stencils painted on in water colors? 

302. How are stencils painted on in oil colors ? 

VARNISHES. 

303. Varnishes have the property of making a 
gloss or an enamel upon the surfaces over which they 
are applied. 

Their uses in antiquity is far beyond the ken of men 
or history and in one instance at least more has been 
lost than has been learned since. In times so very re- 
mote that it is impossible to even guess a date within 
several hundred years, the Chinese produced a glass 
varnish which was used in coating over articles and 
which is indestructible. There are many specimens to 
be found of it and they are as perfect today as upon the 
day that the varnish was applied, so that one can truly 



416 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

say o? it that it is indestructible. The Chinese them- 
selves have lost the art of making this varnish and so 
far with all the knowledge modern chemistry has put 
into the hands of men for scientific researches our ^a- 
vants have been unable to unravel the mystery con- 
nected with it. This varnish dates back so far that even 
Chinese literature which dates back several thousand 
years before Christ, makes no mention of its discovery. 

Aside of this, lacquers were and had been in use 
also from time immemorial by the Asiatics, both Chi- 
nese and Japanese and the East Indies knew its uses in 
very ancient times. 

The varnish industry as wx know it now is of com- 
paratively recent origin and it is not so very long back 
when many of the painters were in the habit of prepar- 
ing their own varnishes, as no factories such as pro- 
duce it at this time had any existence then. 

Formulas galore were in vogue then and many a 
painter paid a good bit of money for recipes known and 
handed down from father to son as an heirloom. Some 
of them have been handed down to us in both written 
formulas and in print, so that we can form as pretty 
good idea of what our forefathers had to do when they 
wanted a can of varnish for use, for they had it to make. 

Most of these recipes are loaded down with quite a 
number of unnecessary ingredients but the recipes 
would have been just as good without seven hairs from 
the inside of the left ear of a white hare, and must have 
put the painters of the sixteenth, seventeenth and 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 417 

eighteenth centuries to considerable trouble in catching 
the hares and then pulling the hair out of the hares. And 
such an array of names for gums as they had — enough 
to confound all but a twentieth cenury skeptic who has 
them all classed into very small groups with rosin at the 
top, of which our forefathers knew little about and 
cared less. , 

Up to the middle of the nineteenth century varnishes 
were still made by many painters, although factories be- 
gan to prepare them in a commercial way and for sale to 
the trade some time before and in a very humble way 
compared to the manner in which the large concerns en- 
gaged in its manufacture today do. 

England and France have the honor of having the 
oldest varnish factories in the world and compared to 
many other industries they may be called recent. Their 
preparations, however, did not extend down to the 
needs of the house painters, as they catered mainly to 
the wants of the carriage trade. Some of those old 
English and French varnish manufacturers' names are 
still in use and the lineal descendants of the families are 
still connected with the concerns making the varnishes 
today. Tradition having handed down the great value 
of their output said tradition having started when few 
knew what varnish was and when but few were en- 
gaged in its manufacture, it has enabled these old con- 
cerns to hold trade against all comers at prices for their 
products in vvhich the family names weigh more and for 
which more is paid for by the consumer than it is really 



418 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

worth to him. There is no doubt about the excellen- 
cies of their output but our laterday manufacturies are 
making just as good goods and at a price for which 
family name does not count in the making of it. 

304. Varnishes are made from various gums and 
gum-resins and with various solvents. As for certain 
specific purposes each are better adapted for use in the 
one that any of the others, all are useful then for 
certain kinds of work. 

Some of the gums used are soluble only in alcohol 
and are known as spirit varnishes of such character is 
shellac varnish. Others again are soluble only in vola- 
tile oils, as turpentine, etc. 

Others are soluble in linseed oil under certain condi- 
tions or in combination with volatile oils. For practical 
purposes, however, varnishes may be divided up in 
three principal classes with many subdivisions in the 
three groups: 

1. Varnishes with an alcoholic base solvent. 

2. Varnishes with a volatile oil base solvent. 

3. Varnishes with a fixed oil base solvent, of which 
more will be said hereafter after the character of the 
gums used in preparing them has been looked into. 

305. The gums chiefly used in preparing varnishes 
are not many. The principal ones are gum copal — 
which is not a true gum insomuch that it is a fossil and 
will not dissolve in either water or volatile oil as all true 
gums do. It is chiefly imported from Africa and comes 
in many qualities. It ranges in color from a pale, nearly 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 419 

transparent tone of yellow, to dark brown and opaque 
chunks and in all sorts of intermediate tones between 
the two. The lightest and clearest is the most valuable 
and the intermediate shades decrease in value according 
as they approach the darker brown shades. Varnishes 
made from this gum are the most desirable of all and 
the solvent under heat and special treatment of the 
manufacturer is mainly linseed oil, which gives the 
varnishes made from it its greater durability and elas- 
ticity. 

Kauri gum — is a resin gum of a semi-fossilized sort. 
It is found where original forests of the kauri pine for- 
merly existed and that is of better quality than that 
which is obtained from the trees by exudation. 

Animac. — A gum-resin derived from a sort of le- 
guminous tree and probably from several varieties of 
the same specie. In its exudation insects are caught in 
it and come to market with them imbedded in the 
chunks, hence the name. The gum is not as hard as the 
copal gums of good quality and varnishes made from it 
have not the wearing qualities of the one made from 
high grade copal. The varnish makers 'use many of the 
gums in a blend to obtain varnishes adapted for certain 
definite purposes by the judicious mixing of various 
gums. 

Amber is used in making certain varnishes. It is a 
fossilized resin and is found in many countries. The 
chief source of supply, however, is from Germany, 



420 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

where it is found imbedded in the sand along the Baltic 
sea shore. 

Darnar is a soft whitish gum which exudes from con- 
iferous species of trees in India and Ceylon. It is sol- 
uble in the volatile oils and yields a very white varnish 
of too soft a nature to be of much practical use except 
as a paper varnish for which on account of its pliability, 
it seems well adapted also on account of its colorless 
nature. 

Sandarac is also the product of conifers, but is of lit- 
tle better quality although harder than our own resin 
derived from yellow pine. 

Gum mastic is derived from a nut bearing tree of the 
Grecian archipelago, and exudes from the trees where 
incisions are made, in the shape of small tear like peb- 
bles. It is also too soft for other uses than that indi- 
cated for damar gum varnish. 

Resin of yellow pine extraction is used in many ways 
by varnish factories in connection with other harder 
gums and with China wood oil it yields some kinds of 
varnishes useful for many purposes. Since the intro- 
duction of wood oil in connection with varnish making, 
it has rendered its use possible where before it would 
not have been thought of. This wood oil seems to make 
it harder and more pliable at the same time and it is re- 
placing many of the soft gums which are mentioned 
above as it is very much cheaper than any of the others. 

Sticlac and Shellac may as well be reviewed to- 
gether, as shellac is only sticlac refined for commer- 



Modern Painte/s Cyclopedia 421 

cial use and immense quantities of it are used by the in- 
dustries of the country besides the use of it made by the 
hardwood finishing trade. It is the product of vegeta 
tion and is soluble in alcohol mainly. 

The solvents are alcohol, turpentine and linseed oil. 

306. The manufacture of varnish is an intricate, 
complex business requiring a long apprenticeship and 
accumulated experience and while the ways of making 
varnishes are well known, each manufacturer has little 
tricks of his own in the making of certain grades and in 
the ripening or blending of various gums which are 
carefully guarded. 

It requires a large capital besides for to properly con- 
duct a varnish manufacturing business. The ripening 
of varnishes requires months and even years to fit them 
for certain uses. 

It is much cheaper for the consumer to buy the var- 
nishes he uses ready for application than it would be 
for him to make them, even if he had the know how 
which he has not, and a person now who would under- 
take the making of his own varnish as *'in ye olden 
tymes" would be considered as a fit subject for a lunatic 
asylum. Such easily made ones as shellac varnish, 
however, do not come under the same heading, and any 
one can readily make them for himself; all that is re- 
quired is to give the alcohol sufficient time to dissolve 
the shellac, but it will not pay one to make it as he can- 
not buy the shellac nearly as cheap as the manufacturer 



422 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

does and it will probably cost him as much as the ready 
prepared article besides the trouble thrown in. 

307. The cheapest forms of varnish made are of 
course made entirely from resin dissolved in cheap min- 
eral volatile oil with some paraffin oil put into it in 
order that the brittleness of the resin may be counter- 
acted. 

The so-called "surfacers" are but little better than 
the gloss oils and may be classed together. They are 
chiefly used in coating over plastered walls to stop the 
suctions previous to the applications of water colors. 

308. Because a varnish may be cheap it need not 
necessarily be a poor one, nor will a high priced varnish 
necessarily be a good one, simply because high priced 
material enter into its composition. So there are a num- 
ber of cheaply made varnishes which are as good and 
possibly better for the purposes for which they are used 
than others which would cost many times more per gal- 
lon. Since manufacturers have been able by the proper 
use of wood oil, paraffine oil and linseed oil, to use resin 
and the darker colored gum copals to prepare good 
wearing varnishes by blending at a low cost, immense 
quantities are used by the trade and with good results. 

These cheaper varnishes of course all contain resin in 
greater of lesser quantities grading up in quality from 
something but little better than the surfacers on upward 
in quality and price up to extra No. i coach and light 
hard oil finish (so called) of this character are the Fur- 
niture varnishes; coach varnishes^ including A'O. I 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 423 

coach and extra No, I coach. Some of them so good 
that they will rub and the whole grade in qualities of 
the so-called hard oils of which enormous quantities 
are used in finishing cheap interior wood work. 

309. The house painter and hard wood finishers are 
chiefly interested in the following varnishes, which all 
varnish houses now make a sepcialty of under some 
fancy proprietary name, but which are probably all pre- 
pared in much the same manner by all of tliem : 

Interior varnish for inside wood finishing. The bet- 
ter grades carry a fine lustre and all are rubbing var- 
nishes, and polish well. 

Outside varnish, usually an elastic varnish, but a 
slower dryer than the interior brands. Supposed to 
stand the weather, but they do not — at least not very 
long. Manufacturers should add to the label after the 
word Outside — when well protected from sun and rain. 
But then the varnish would not sell so well. 

Floor varnish completes the trio which every painter 
and wood finisher is interested in. This is made from 
very hard gums so as to stand the hardships it is sub- 
jected to from being walked upon, cleaned and brushed 
over. 

All the varnishes which have been mentioned so far 
are varnishes which are used in house construction by 
house painters and wood finishers even the so-called 
coach varnishes. These are never used by the carriage 
painter, however much the name would indicate that it 
is. They are chiefly used in the same way as hard oil 



424 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

finishes for the cheaper kinds of furniture and pine fin- 
ishes in room work ; in short they are all about on a par 
with furniture varnish. 

310. The carriage trade uses a higher grade of var- 
nishes than the average which is used in house work, so 
they cost more. Competition, however, has reduced the 
fancy prices asked and obtained by our English cousins 
across the water since American manufacturers have 
gained the experience enabling them to make as good 
earirage varnish as that which formerly was all im- 
ported. 

While carriage varnishers as a class by itself is of a 
better quality than the first ones reviewed, they are by 
no means all equally good, nor is it necessary that they 
should be. A cheap wagon or vehicle will not and 
ought not to receive the same treatment as an expensive 
coach, for if it did — it would not be cheap. Nor need 
the varnish be as good in the repainting of old vehicles 
as for first class work. So there are grades and quali- 
ties in carriage varnishes as well as in house varnishes. 

The carriage rubbing famishes exemplified what is 
said in the preceding paragraph. They are made to rub 
in from 12 to 60 hours. The slower ones being the best 
and most expensive. 

The wearing body varnishes are and should be made 
from the very finest material and all manufacturers try 
to excel in their output of it. It too is made in several 
qualities. The palest which is made from the costliest 
gums is the highest priced, while the darker gums used 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 425 

in the lower grades of it cheapens the cost, while aside 
of the color the quality remains nearly as 'good. Some 
of the wearing body varnishes are made to dry quicker 
than others for hurried work. Generally speaking the 
slower drying ones are the best for wear. 

The gear varnisheSj for the varnishing of running 
parts, are made to stand more hard knocks than any 
of the others and are to be found in many degrees of 
paleness and of quickness in drying. The slower driers 
are the more elastic. 

Manufacturers all have a long list of carriage var- 
nishes, describing each so that the person buying it 
may know just what to expect from it. All of them 
can be classed in the three kinds mentioned. The black 
rubbing is simply a rubbing varnish into which a black 
color has been ground and could be made in the shop, 
but that the mixture would not be as smooth and well 
ground together unless the shop is equipped for it. So 
all the numerous varnishes listed are simply varieties of 
those three — many being made in different qualities 
of paleness, elasticity, etc. 

311. As everything that has a gloss is a varnish, 
asphaltum varnish is entitled to the name. It is classed 
by itself for the reason that there is only one place 
where it can be useful and that is upon ironwork. It 
is made from asphaltum, a mineral gum too well known 
to need any introduction. It is melted and at as low a 
heat as possible turpentine or benzine or naptha is 
mixed in with it to make it fluid enough to be brushed 



426 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

out upon metals. That made from turpentine is the best 
to use, as the smell of the others is against them, es- 
pecially in interior work. It dries quickly and the 
operator must not wait too long in joining up, or a lap 
will result. Where registers or iron work are to be 
coated over with it they can be warmed, then the var- 
nish will flow level and free of brush marks. 

Asphaltum varnish is useful also to the sign painter 
in show card writing and in the painting over of brass 
and copper plates for etching, and brass and metal 
signs. 

The above comprises about all the varnishes useful 
to the painters. 

QUESTIONS ON VARNISHES. 

303. What is said of varnishes? 

304. How many classes of varnishes are there? 

305. Name the gum-resins chiefly used in the mak- 
ing of varnishes? 

306. Will it pay to make one's own varnishes ? 

307. What are gloss oil and the so called surfacers ? 

308. What other cheap varnishes are there? 

309. What grades of varnishes are chiefly useful in 
hardwood finishing? 

310. Name the principal carriage varnishes? 
.311. What is asphaltum varnish and what are its 

uses ? 

VARNISHING. 
312. The operation of varnishing, which is simple 
enough to look at, is, nevertheless, one which requires 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 427 

a great deal more knowledge than appears from simple 
casual observation. Everybody may put on paint so 
that it will look well and it would seem that any one 
could do the same with a varnish brush, but such is not 
the case. Good varnishers are the exception, and some 
men have tried for years to acquire the knack, but 
failed to do so. 

There are so many things to be taken into considera- 
tion in order to insure good varnishing that the wonder 
is, not that there are so few good varnishes, but that 
there is so much of it that is done that proves good as 
there is under such conditions as exist. 

313. a. Varnish, unlike paint, is most sensitive to 
the atmospheric and barometrical state of the weather. 
It is so sensitive that a draught of air will cause trouble 
in the varnish room, so that carriage factories, which 
are the only places where perfect conditions for do- 
ing perfect varnishing can be established, all have taken 
the greatest of care to guard against every element en- 
tering into the possibility of making trouble in the 
varnish rooms. 

As far as possible the varnish room is located 
farthest away from the blacksmith shop where 
sulphurous fumes are generated, and from which noxi- 
ous gases arise. To guard against draughts double 
windows should be used and a ventilating air shaft 
should carry out all the bad air of a varnish room and 
all outer air entering should be filtered free of dust. 

Steam coils and radiators are the only heat permissi- 



428 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

ble, as the varnish room should be maintained at a 
uniform degree of temperature during both the appUca- 
tion of the varnish and its drying. No varnishing can 
be done when the heat is below 70 degrees Fahrenheit, 
and the room should never be allowed to cool down be- 
low that. There is but little danger of trouble arising 
from overheating, but a great deal can be expected from 
sudden changes, and this is never allowed in a first class 
carriage factory. The greatest troubles arise from 
barometrical changes and these cannot be altogether 
guarded against. An exhaust fan and heat will help to 
reduce damage by humidity to the lowest degree, and 
where draughts of the outer air are prevented there is 
usually no damage done. 

The above may cause dismay to the beginner and he 
may well think that if varnishing can only be done 
under such conditions he may as well give up any hopes 
of ever becoming a varnisher. In the above was given 
the description of a varnish room such as the better 
class of vehicle manufacturers actually do have, and 
where fine jobs are varnished. 

b. As all carriage shops, and especially the repair 
shops, cannot have such a varnish room, they have to 
put up with what they have and make out the best they 
can out of it. As each shop will have, probably, its own 
peculiar conditions each will have to adapt them so as to 
come as near to the description given of a first class 
one as it is possible for it to do so. The proper amount 
of heat must be maintained during the varnishing and 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 429 

drying. Dust must be kept down and out, and outer 
air, too, or there will be blooming and the looi var- 
nish deviltries to annoy and make one's life miserable. 

c The furniture factories are all equipped so as 
to obtain good results in their varnishing departments. 
While the usual class of furniture varnishing does not 
require the same amount of care as that which is done in 
the carriage shop, high grade polished furniture re- 
quires nearly if not quite as much precautions. Even 
for the very cheapest grades of furniture, the least speck 
of dust will hurt the looks of the cheapest kind of 
finish and that must be guarded against. So the var- 
nish rooms of such establishments should, and are 
usually equipped so as to prevent changes of tem- 
perature and dust nearly as thoroughly as first class 
carriage shops are. 

d. The painters and hardwood finishers who have 
the interior of a new house to finish and complete are 
not so fortunately situated for doing their varnishing 
and they must make out the best they can. Yet they will 
be expected to turn out perfect work and as it is lo- 
cated where it will be under the constant vision of the 
occupants the least flaw in the work will be sure to be 
found out and to be brought home to them oftener than 
they like. 

In the summer and early autumn they can manage 
fairly well ; the rooms should be dusted over and over 
again until there is an assurance of every speck of it 
is out of the way, and the wood work as well as the 



430 Modern Paint er^s Cyclopedia 

floors and walls should be wiped with a damp chamois 
skin, which will collect all that has been left after the 
dustings and sweepings. The doors and windows 
must be closed and the former locked to keep intruders 
and the dust they would bring — out. This exclusion 
must last not only during the time required for the 
application of the varnish, but also during the whole of 
the time required for its drying safely out of the way 
of dust sticking to it. 

It may seem puerile and harsh to keep out callers, 
but first class work cannot be done otherwise. After 
a room has been finished everything should be removed 
out of it into the next one to be varnished and the 
door locked so that not even the steps of the varnisher 
may cause a forgotten atom of dust to rise and fasten 
itself to the varnished surface. 

e. The above is plain sailing and very good varnish- 
ing can be done at that time of the year, but in cold 
weather the troubles begin. 

In houses which have a steam heating apparatus or 
a hot water system the difficulty will not be so great, 
but where the heating is by hot air or where it must be 
done with stoves, it is very troublesome. The tempera- 
ture must be maintained above 70 degrees, Fahr. It 
is difficult to establish an even heat, especially with 
stoves, and in the latter case dust, galore will be sure to 
be raised. When the heating is done by stoves, it 
will be well to arrange it so that considerably more 
than 70 degrees may be present in the room before 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 431 

the varnishing" begins, then to fill the stoves and regu- 
late them to keep the heat going for several hours more 
without the having to touch them again after the var- 
nishing. After filling them up proceed to wipe up all 
dust with a chamois skin, slightly dampened, and go on 
with the varnishing, keeping out intruders until the 
varnish is dry. 

314. It is customary with a few varnishers to mix 
two kinds of varnishs together when they do their 
work. 

This should never be resorted to. When a varnish 
does not work well, better give it up and procure one 
that is better suited to the work being done. 

If the varnisher will bear in mind that the varnish he 
is using is probably the result of a blend made from 
several tanks of varnishes, which have been ripening 
for months and years at the factory, and that the manu- 
facturer who knows all the particulars and the peculiari- 
ties of every one of his tanks should certainly be the 
proper one to make the mixing, and that if he has failed 
to make it good, certainly the man who know^s nothing 
whatever about that varnish or the one he mixes with 
it, will certainly make a mess, and probably a botch of 
it. 

Varnishes are tempered just right for their applica- 
tion at the factory, so they require no thinning with 
either turpentine or oil, especially the latter. Trouble 
in the sliape of sweating and stickiness will surely fol- 
low such thinnings. 



482 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

The cheaper varnishes, composed nearly all of tur- 
pentine thinner, when long exposed to the air, may be- 
come too thick for application; in such a case the addi- 
tion of turpentine is allowable but the varnish should 
first be warmed and the turpentine added and well in- 
corporated with it by shaking at intervals of fifteen 
minutes for an hour before using. 

315. When pouring out varnish to be used on a job, 
never pour out much more than is needed to complete 
the job. It is better to go again for more, if not 
enough. For varnish once taken out of the can and 
exposed to the air shoidd never he poured hack into the 
can. How many painters have learned this lesson only 
after bitter experiences! They will argue that it is 
foolish and that no possible harm can follow — and they 
learn after it is too late that it ruins a good varnish to 
pour it back and that it queers all the rest of it in the 
can. 

How and why it does so would be hard to explain, 
and it may remain one of the many other mysteries con- 
nected with varnish which no amount of reasoning can 
explain satisfactorarily to one seeking to understand it. 
Varnish is a touchy affair — worse than an old maid to 
handle. It will only be handled in its own good way 
and no other. 

316. The tools required for varnishing will depend 
upon the kinds of varnishes used and also upon the 
surfaces to be gone over and the finish desired. The 
whole list of varnish brushes made from bristles, cam- 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 433 

el's hair, badger, sable, ox hair, etc., are used. They 
are shown in their varied shapes under Figs. 12, 15, 16, 
17, 31, 40 and 41. Varnish brushes should be well 
taken care of and each should be kept in an individual 
brush keeper, if possible, and hung in the kind of var- 
nish that it is used in, nor should it ever be used for 
any other. At least all the finishing and flowing var- 
nish brushes should be so kept. Where the above is 
impossible, or when the varnish brushes are used in 
the cheaper varnishes, they may be hung up in linseed 
oil in such a keeper as is shown in Fig. 57. The lin- 
seed oil must be carefully washed out of the brushes 
with benzine or naptha before using again. 

317. The application proper of the varnish will now 
follow after all the precautions to guard against chances 
of the varnish going wrong have been taken. 

It is a simple enough Iboking affair and words will 
hardly convey the intelligence sufficiently clear to war- 
rant the reader in going ahead and undertaking to do a 
job of varnishing immediately upon his having read 
the ''how to do it." 

He will probably know as much about it if told to 
dip his brush in the varnish pot and rub it on the sur- 
face where it is wanted as he would in a long essay 
which he will get mixed up in, and which will puzzle 
him much more than it will enlighten him. 

All there is in varnishing is the putting of it on sur- 
faces with a brush. The beginner should not attempt 
to put on the more difficult flowing coats until he has 



434 Modern Painte/s Cyclopedia 

acquired the knack and use of the brush upon the 
varnishing of cheap yellow pine interior partitions or 
wood work. He should put on his varnish crosswise 
fi! 3t, and lay it off afterward the long way of the 
b jards, using the tips of the brush to even it up nicely. 

One of the greatest drawbacks to the beginner in his 
a':tempts at applying varnish is his fear that he is put- 
ting on too much and that it will sag on him, therefore, 
he works and works it out to the last limit; he does 
what is known as ''skinning it on' in varnish slang. 

Now, skinned on varnish never looks well and makes 
che job look like a man in a dress suit with plow shoes 
on. Varnish, to look well, must be put on full; if 
it be the right sort for the purpose it will not be any 
more likely to sag put on full than it will otherwise 
unless it is grossly overdone. The work, too, will be 
much freer of brush marks, as it will tend to flow 
together and to fiill up the gaps left by the hair of 
the varnish brush. Skimpy varnishing will show every 
one of these and much more specks of dust, which a 
heavy coat will absorb and into which they will sink be- 
low the surface. 

Many varnishers among the wood finishers and car- 
riage shop operators when varnishing on the best work, 
lay on the varnish full, but evenly ; vertically first, and 
then square it up horizontally. It will not prevent sag- 
ging of varnish that has not been put on evenly, but 
where it has been evenly and fully applied it will give 
the varnish coat the best chance of setting without sags. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 435 

It is hoped that the novice in varnish application will 
not be deterred from trying his skill by whatever may 
have been said regarding the difficulties that go along 
with it. The causes of trouble being known, it is possi- 
ble, with a little trouble, to circumvent them so that 
they become harmless. 

Some men are born good varnishers and fall into 
the right way of it like a gosling to a pond of water, 
and no one knows till they try what they may be capable 
of. With care, the proper use of the brush can be 
acquired when it is not natural to a person. It is, of 
course, much more pleasant to have been born a var- 
nisher, but some of the best varnishers commenced by 
aggravated cases of sagging in their first attempts at 
it. "Try, try again," is a good motto if it is old 
fashioned. The man who is observant will note where 
he has erred and the next job will be more perfect be- 
cause the experience had on the former one will guard 
him against committing the same mistake again; such 
men will grow into good varnishers. 

QUESTIONS ON VARNISHING. 

312. What is said of varnishing in general? 

313. a. What conditions are required for good 

varnishing? 

b. How should the varnish room be ar- 

ranged in carriage shops? 

c. How should varnish rooms be arranged 

in furniture factories? 



436 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

d. How should the interior of houses be pre- 
pared for the varnishing in cold 
weather ? 

314. Should two kinds of varnish be mixed to- 
gether before aplying? 

315. When there is a surplus of varnish left over 
after a job is done, should it be poured back in the can? 

316. What tools are needed in varnishing? 

317. >How is varnish applied? 

VEHICLES. 

318. The term 'Vehicle" has a double signification 
in the paint trade. To the carriage painter it means 
one thing and to all the others it means another. To 
the carriage painter it means anything made that will 
carry persons — coaches, carriages, buggies, phaetons, 
landaus, etc., etc. — and what the others know as ve- 
hicles he calls thinners. 

There is a tendency towards a more uniform designa- 
tion for the liquids used in the application of paint and 
thinners are becoming generally used by all kinds of 
painters. 

Vehicle, which means a carrier of something, is still 
used widely, and is certainly most appropriate for the 
purpose that liquids are employed — the carrying of the 
pigment in the paint in which they enter. 

319. Some vehicles contain within themselves the 
binding qualities which serve to hoJd the pigment firmly 
where it has been applied in the painting. Others do 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 437 

not, and such must have had some substances dissolved 
through their agency which upon the evaporation or 
drying of the vehicle will remain and bind the pigment 
firmly. 

320. The fixed oils are of the first character. They 
contain within themselves the drying and solidifying 
properties necessary to hold the paint, which in their 
liquid condition they served to convey to the surfaces 
painted. As all have been already reviewed, and their 
properties noted in the section headed, ''Oils and 
Driers," the reader is referred to what is said con- 
cerning them in Paragraphs 194 to 202. 

320. The volatile oils are used more as adjuncts 
to the fixed oils, japans and varnishes, than they are al- 
together alone — as they possess no binding qualities of 
their own whatever. These, too, have been fully de- 
scribed under the heading of oils and driers in Para- 
graphs 203 to 208, to which the reader is referred for 
fuller information. 

321. Japans, varnishes, etc., are used almost ex- 
clusively in the painting of carriages, car and vehicle 
painting of every sort. These, being compounds, owe 
their binding qualities asidt; of that of linseed oil, which 
they may carry in their composition to such gums or 
gum resins which enter into them. Drying hard, they 
pave the way for good varnishing over them, and will 
not sweat through as oil coats would. 

322. Water is the vehicle used in all water color 
or distemper work. Water, having no binding proper- 



438 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

ties of its own, must have some binding substances 
added to it and which must be soluble in it in order 
that the colors applied through its medium will stay 
where they are placed. Many substances soluble in 
water will do this nicely. Some of the vegetable gums 
as gum arabic, for instance, make excellent binders for 
water colors, and but for their cost and scarcity would 
be used much more extensively than they are. As it is, 
their use is chiefly confined to artists who paint in water 
colors. Should it be used in the quantity required for 
binding one-hundreth part of the water colors used in 
wall coloring, there would be a howl about the price 
jumping away up above the already very high cost of 
it, as it is now. 

Gum Tragacanth, and other gums, have been used 
in a small way for certain specific purposes, but none 
possess any value worth considering, except gum 
arabic, which, it is seen, cannot be obtained in sufi(icient 
quantity nor at such a price as to make its use possible 
in general house work. 

322. Glues are the only material which the calci- 
miner and water color decorator can use. While they 
are not as clean as gum arabic and will deteriorate 
much quicker in warm weather, upon the whole, they 
have answered well the purposes for which they are 
used — of binding the colors. 

There is much variation in the qualities of glues. 
They are made from the ofTals of animals derived from 
skin clippings, hoofs, bones, etc. ; those parts which 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 439 

otherwise would have little value. Some of the strong- 
est glues are made grom the bladders and intestines of 
fish. 

Glues may be put into three general classes : 

1. Derived from fish. 

2. From clippings of hides, and cartilagenous parts 
of animals. 

3. From the boiling of bones. 

The first, when made exclusively from fish bladders 
and intestines, are the strongest and clearest. The sec- 
ond, made from animals' skins, is but little inferior to 
that made from fish and are very strong, too. The 
thin calcimine grades of light cream color are the best 
to use for color binding. The thin calcimine glue of an 
opaque white color is usually adulterated with some 
make-weight material, so that notwithstanding their 
good looks they are not so strong as the light buff-col- 
ored, semi-transparent kinds. 

The third class of glues, made from bones, are not 
as strong as the others. They are cheaper in price, but 
dearer in the end. 

2,27,. There is an easy way to determine the value of 
a glue. While it may be called ''empirical," one can 
attain to something near its worth by a simple process 
of weighing, say, one ounce of glue, and putting it to 
soak for a day. It must then be drained of water and 
re-weighed. Glue should absorb about eighteen times 
its former weight of water. If it falls much below that 
it will not be as strong as it should be, and, conse- 



440 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

quently, more of it must be used to accomplish the 
same amount of binding that a lesser quantity of 
stronger glue would do. 

QUESTIONS ON VEHICLES OR THINNERS. 

318. What is understood by the word, "vehicle?" 

319. What are the fixed oils? 

320. What is said of volatile oils? 

321. In what way are japans and varnishes used as 
vehicles ? 

322. How many classes of glue are there ? 

323. How can good glue be determined? 

WATER COLORS. 

324. As to all intents and purposes water color 
painting-distemper painting, fresco painting in water 
colors and calcimining are all one and the same thing, 
and as under each of those headings full directions are 
given for the treatment of walls and for the application 
of colors, and, under, "Mixing of Colors," as to their 
preparation for use — the reader is referred to those 
headings for any information he may desire about watei 
colors, either for their application upon wails in plair 
tints, or as used in decorations as in "fresco/* etc. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 441 

WALL DECORATION— HIGHLIGHT OIL- 
COLOR METHOD 

There is no branch of painting and decorating which 
offers the painter such opportunities for making money 
as painting and decorating of plaster walls. One mis- 
conception still prevents many people from giving seri- 
ous consideration to substituting paint for wall paper 
and that is the impression that unless one goes in for 
expensive work a wall can be painted only in a plain 
color, with perhaps a stencil decoration. When you 
speak of a "painted wall" one thinks of it as a cal- 
cimined wall, only perhaps more durable. AVhen you 
speak of a "decorated wall" one thinks of freehand 
decorations or, perhaps in a hazy way, of Tiffany glaze 
color work, which appear entirely too expensive even to 
be thought of. 

These objections are both removed by the highlight 
method of wall decoration and every painter who is not 
now using this method, whether he knows it by that 
name or not, is earnestly advised to look into it care- 
fully, do some experimental work on his own account 
and then equip himself to go out and sell it. 

This method of decorating plaster walls produces a 
general effect that is commonly associated with high 
class artistic and expensive decorations. It is no more 
expensive to produce than ordinary two-coat solid color 
work and can readily be sold for fifty per cent more. It 
does not require highly skilled workmanship. It will 
not show dust accumulations or dirty spots quickly and 



442 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

will stand repeated washings without streaking. It 
will hide fire cracks and other defects in the plaster and 
may be applied directly to rough or smooth plaster, can- 
vas, or wall board. It has everything to commend it to 
the painter who is looking for a wider and more profit- 
able market for his work and to lift himself out of the 
ordinary class of work where price competition is un- 
bearable. 

The fundamental idea of the highlight method is to 
apply a ground coat of white or some light tinted lead 
and oil paint, over which is applied a darker harmoniz- 
ing or contrasting color broken up by a pattern which 
will permit the ground color to show through. It dif- 
fers from Tiffany glazing in that ordinary lead and oil 
paint is used for the second coat instead of transparent 
colors and that seldom more than two colors are used. 

For the benefit of those who are not familiar with 
this method, it is here described in detail. 

Old Walls, — Prepare and patch as for ordinary 
painting. 

New Smooth Plaster or New Wall Board. — Size 
with first class hard gum varnish (interior spar is 
good), not gloss oil. Thin with turpentine and add just 
enough lead tinted same as the ground coat is to be to 
give color and cover only fairly well. 

Muslin or Canvas Covered Walls. — First coat with 
lead and linseed oil, tinted to suit. Follow with good 
varnish size, if needed. Glue size will do. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 443 

From this point on the method to pursue is practi- 
cally the same for each kind of wall. 

Let us say a dining room is to be finished. The usual 
plate rail divides the walls into a "dado" below and a 
''filling" above. The wood trim and furniture are of a 
medium dark weathered or Jacobean finished oak. The 
rug is chiefly a medium dark delft blue but has also a 
gray tone in general. Leather chair seats are delft blue. 

With such furnishings a two-toned light warm gray 
treatment of the walls would appear well. If the wood 
trim were white or gray enamel the success of such a 
wall treatment would be greater. It is seldom that the 
wood trim in average American homes is finished to 
fit furniture and rugs, although that is customary in 
the older European countries. The trim in this instance 
is not out of harmony, but it doesn't contribute very 
much. 

Ground Coat. — Mix the lightest gray paint possible, 
and yet have it cover pretty well, by adding a bit of 
lamp black and of raw umber to a Carter Lead base. 
Thin with about one-third turpentine and two-thirds 
linseed oil. Brush on in the usual manner and let dry. 
There is some advantage in stippling this coat as 
roughly as possible, especially hard, smooth walls, but it 
is not necessary. This ground coat goes over all walls 
and the ceiling. 

When an especially fine job is wanted for a dining 
room dado, a cafe, theatre foyer or hotel lobby j the 
ground coat may be mixed from ordinary radiator 



444 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

bronze powder and the bronzing liquid or good varnish 
cut with turpentine. It may be gold, aluminum or cop- 
per. Sometimes two are mixed to advantage. Brush 
on the bronze in the usual manner, taking care to avoid 
having laps and joints show. Such a metal ground 
gives a brilliant and beautiful surface, having great 
depth of color, especially when a transparent color is 
used over it as a stipple coat. It may be given a very 
thin coat of wax or flat varnish if desired after the 
stipple coat to keep the metal from tarnishing for a 
much longer time. 

When the first coat has become dry on the ceiling lay 
on a second of gray-white and the ceiling is finished. 

Stipple Coat. — Mix from white lead, adding only as 
much lamp black and raw umber as will make the coat 
enough darker than the ground coat to give a good con- 
trast. It ought still to remain a very light gray. Thin 
entirely with turpentine for a dead flat effect. Add a 
little linseed oil if an eggshell gloss is wanted. Mix to 
ordinary brushing consistency usually. If mixed 
thicker the finish will have a generally darker appear- 
ance and a rougher pattern, which may or may not be 
wanted, depending upon what kind of room is being- 
decorated. When mixed thinner the effect will be 
lighter in color and finer in pattern. 

Now with the ground coat dry the stipple finishin-^ 
coat is put on not with a brush but with a large washing 
sponge, the larger the better. When new the sponge 
will give a coarse, rough pattern desirable for some 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 445 

rooms. An old, used sponge produces a fine, even pat- 
tern. Cutting the sharp projections off of a new sponge 
with the shears causes it to give about the same effect as 
a worn sponge. 

Secure a piece of sheet iron or tin a foot or two 
square. With a flat wall brush flow on a full, stout coat 
of the gray paint. Soak your sponge in water to soften 
and swell it and then wring out as much water as you 
can. Pick up this paint from the sheet iron with the 
flat side of the sponge and transfer it to the wall, using 
the sponge as you would a stippling brush but more 
slowly. Press it against the wall quite hard and pull it 
straight away without twisting the hand. Repeat the 
operation to carry the stretch down the wall from pic- 
ture mould to plate rail, returning to the sheet iron to 
pick up more paint as needed. If you get too much 
paint on one spot leave it for a few seconds and work 
the material out of the sponge on new portions. Then 
return to it. By pressing the sponge against the surface 
real hard you can pick up excess paint. If necessary 
wash out the sponge with benzine or use a clean one, 
but you must work fast. Go over each spot as few 
times as possible. Once over to transfer the paint to the 
surface and once to smooth out the joints are really 
necessary. The accomplishment in this class of work 
is to knoza when to quit. Judge the appearance of the 
work from across the room, not nearby. When one wall 
has been done, be sure to match the others to it, allow- 



446 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

ing for the darker walls in shadows. All should carry 
the same depth of color and amount of pattern. 

When working on a very porous wall it is often best 
to coat the wall before any of the stipple coat has been 
put on with a glazing liquid composed of one part lin- 
seed oil, raw, two parts turpentine and one part benzine. 
That enables you to move the color on the surface more 
easily. Do not wait for the glazing liquid to dry. 

When the upper wall has been finished all around as 
above, the lower section may be treated in exactly the 
same manner after making the paint a few degrees 
darker. 

The finish just described produced with the sponge 
is but one of many which result from using the same 
method in all respects except that a stippling brush, a 
wad of cheese cloth, crepe paper, muslin or burlap are 
substituted for the sponge. The stippling brush used 
like the sponge gives a finer textured surface. The 
crepe paper, cheese cloth and burlap also produce fine, 
simple patterns but slightly different from each other. 
The heavy muslin when crumpled up into a wad gives 
an especially pleasing pattern resembling the figure of 
Spanish leather when done in the burnt umber or Van 
Dyke brown over a ground coat of ivory. The mate- 
rials or tools just mentioned are used in exactly the 
same manner as the sponge except that it is usually ad- 
visable to twist the hand with them when stippling the 
surface and it is not with the sponge. 

Color Schemes. — All combinations of opaque and 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 



447 



transparent colors, as well as tints and shades made 
with these colors on a white lead base, are used in the 
manner described for the two-toned gray dining room. 
Not all colors used together will harmonize, nor are all 
color combinations and stipple patterns suitable for 
every room. When two tones of the same color are 
used, harmony is certain. 



HERE ARE A FEW PRETTY COLOR COMBINATIONS: 



Ground 
Coat 


Stipple 
Coat 


Materials 


Stencil 
Color 


White 


Light Rose 


American Vermilion 
and Carter Lead 


Medium Light Gray 


White 


Light Gray 


Lamp Black and 
Carter Lead 


Dull Blue, Gray -Green 
or a Darker Gray 


White 


Light Warm 
Yellow 


Med. Chrome Yellow, 
little Vermilion and 
Carter Lead 


Light Cobalt Blue, 
neutral Light Drab 


Light 
Gray 


Same gray, a 
little darker 


Lamp Black 
Raw Umber 


Gray, Gray-Green or 
light Cobalt Blue 


Light 
Gray 


Light Blue 


Cobalt Blue only 


Gray, Blue or a Ligh' 
Orange Yellow 


Light 
Gray 


Green 


Med. Chrome 
Green only 


Light Gray 
Neutral Drab 


Ivory 


Olive Green 


Med. Chrome Green, 
French Ochre, 
Carter Lead 


Ivory or Grayish 
Light Green 


Light Col- 
onial Yellow 


Light Blue 


Cobalt Blue 
Carter Lead 


Neutral Gray, Ivory 


Gold 
Bronze 


Dark Green 


Med. Chrome 
Green only 


Light Warm Drab, 
Medium Olive, Warm 
Gray, Cream 


Aluminum 
Bronze 


Blue 


Cobalt Blue only 


Delft Blue, Light Ivory, 
Light Neutral Gray 


Ivory 


Tan 


Raw Sienna only 


Brown — Burnt Umber 
Cream 


Ivory 


Dark Brown Burnt Umber only 


Light Tan, cream 
Light Gray Drab 



KEY TO PLATES 

aW plates shown have been photographed from actual work 'n 
graining and marbling done by students at the Chicago Schoot 
of Painting, Decorating and Paper Hanging. 

Plate I 
Door in oak heart growth done in water colors. 

Plate II 
Door in quartered oak in oil — (wiped out). 

Plate III 
Door in black walnut; stippled and veined in water colors. 

Plate IV 
Door in walnut root or curled walnut, in water colors. 

Plate V 
Door in mahogany, in water colors. 

Plate VI 
Dado panelled up in mahogany in water colors. 

Plate VII 
Dado — in marbles — panels are various colored and formations 
of marble, stiles and upper slabs, white and black veined — base 
in black, white veined. 

Plate VIII 
Two panelled cupboard doors — top one in conglomerate sienna, 
the bottom in veined fissured sienna marble, surrounding stiling 
in black veined white marble. 



^ i 



INDEX 

A 

PAGE 

Acacia tint — how to make 143 

Acorn tint — how to make 143 

Action of volatile oils on paint 285 

Adulterant used mainly for heavy colors 114 

Advertising bulletin signs — how painted 386 

Agate marbling — how done 270 

Alabaster tint — how made 143 

Alderney brown tint — how made 143 

Aluminous earths whites 103 

Amaranth tint — how made 143 

American process white zinc 112 

American vermillion 118 

Anemone tint — how made 143 

Antique bronze tint — how made 143 

Antwerp blue tint — ^how made 143 

Apple green tint — how made 144 

Apricot tint — how made 144 

Armenian red tint — how made 144 

Artists' round and flat lining brushes 41 

Asiatic bronze tint — how made 144 

Ash tint — how made 144 

Ash — graining of 255 

Ash grey tint — how made 144 

Asphaltum varnish for iron work 424 

Autumn leaf tint — how made 144 

Azure blue tint — how made 144 

B 

Banana oil — as size for bronzing 2.10 

Barytes — as an adulterant of colors 1 14 

Barytes — as an adulterant of white lead 114 



Index 

Ease -color for mixing tints 142 

Bath tub enamel painting— general remarks on 294 

Bath tub enamel painting— how done 295 

Bath tub enamel painting— how to prepare for 295 

Bay tint — how made I44 

Begonia tint — how made I44 

Benzine — what it is 290 

Bird's eye maple — how to grain 254 

Bismark brown tint — how made I44 

Black and gold marble — how imitated 266 

Blacks — black lead or plumbago 132 

Blacks — Brunswick 132 

Blacks — carbon or gas 131 

Blacks— coach 132 

Blacks— drop 132 

Blacks— general remarks on 131 

Blacks — ivory 13^ 

Blacks — lamp 131 

Black slate tint — how made I44 

Blistering of paint — causes of 18 

Blistering of paint — general remarks on 17 

Blistering of paint — heat 19 

Blistering of paint — moisture I? 

Blistering of paint — why 20 

Body of colors — how to test for it 162 

Boiled linseed oil — what it is 283 

Bordeaux blue tint — how made I45 

Borders — how to hang I45 

Bottle green tint — how to make I45 

Brass tint — how to make ; I45 

Brick tint — how to make , I45 

Brick color — in scene painting 357 

Brick— how to flat 203 

Bronze blue tint — how made I45 

Bronze green tint — how made I45 

Bronze red tint — how made I4S 

Bronze yellow — how made I4S 

Bronzing — how to apply it -23° 

Bronzing — how to size for it 231 



Index 

Bronzing — various colors, its 231 

Brocatello marble — how imitated 267 

Browns and drabs tints — how made 145 

Browns — general remarks on 128 

Browns — metallic 130 

Browns — siennas — raw and burnt 129 

Browns — Spanish 130 

Browns — stone tint — how made 145 

Browns — umbers — raw and burnt 129 

Brushes — badger hair 26 

Brushes — bear hair 26 

Brushes — black sable hair 26 

Brushes — camel hair 27 

Brushes — fitch hair 26 

Brushes — general remarks on 25 

Brushes — hog bristles 27 

Brushes — material used in making 25 

Brushes — red sable hair 26 

Brushes — Siberian ox hair 26 

Brushes — badger hair — blenders, bone heads 45 

Brushes — tampico fibre 27 

Brushes — badger hair — blenders, round in quill 45 

Brushes — badger hair — flat varnish 44 

Brushes — badger hair — gilders' tips 44 

Brushes — bear hair — flat varnish 51 

Brushes — bristle — artists' round and flat liners 41 

Brushes — bristle — ^brick liners 42 

Brushes — ^bristle — calcimine 29 

Brushes — ^bristle — car scrub , 34 

Brushes — bristle — dusters round and flat 33 

Brushes — bristle — fan overgrainers 42 

Brushes — bristle — fresco liners round and flat 43 

Brushes — bristle — furniture rubbing 45 

Brushes — ^bristle — glue 34 

Brushes — ^bristle — mottlers for graining 44 

Brushes — bristle — oval varnish ^2 

Brushes — bristle — oval wall paint 30 

Brushes — bristle — sash tools 34 

Brushes — ^bristle — smoothing for paper hanging 42 

Brushes — bristle — spoke 34 



Index 

Brushes — bristle — stencil 37 

Brushes — bristle — stippler for flatting wall 30 

Brushes — bristle — stippler for graining 42 

Brushes — ^bristle — varnish 36 

Brushes — bristle — wall painting 31 

Brushes — bristle — wax floor polishing 40 

Brushes — camel's hair — artists' 54 

Brushes — camel's hair — coach color 50 

Brushes — camel's hair — lacquering 53 

Brushes — camel's hair — ^lettering 53 

Brushes — camel's hair — mottling 53 

Brushes — camel's hair — striping 53 

Brushes — camel's hair — varnish 51 

Brushes — fitch — varnish 50 

Brushes — general remarks on 28 

Brushes — ^material used in making 29 

Brushes — ox hair — lettering 47 

Brushes — ^ox hair — striping 47 

Brushes — ox hair — varnish 47 

Brushes — sable (red and black) — artists' 50 

Brushes — sable (red and black) — lettering and striping 50 

Brushes — sable (red and black) — one stroke lettering 50 

Brushes — sable (red and black) — varnish 51 

Burlap — how to hang 326 

Burled walnut — how to grain 258 

Buttercup tint — how made 146 

C 

Cafe au lait tint — how made 146 

Calcimining — general remarks on 57 

Calcimining — proper conditions for 63 

Calcimining — to stop suction on walls in 65 

Calcimining — ^tools needed in 59 

Cambridge red tint — how made 146 

Canary tint — how made 146 

Car or carriage painting — color coats in 84 

Car or carriage painting — coloring a white job in 85 

Car or carriage painting — knifing in coats in 80 

Car or carriage painting — general remarks on 70 



Index 

Car or carriage painting — guide coats in 84 

Car or carriage painting — ornamentation in 87 

Car or carriage painting — putty and puttying in 80 

Car or carriage painting — rough stuff in 82 

Car or carriage painting — rubbing rough stuff 82 

Car or carriage painting — sandpapering on 82 

Car or carriage painting — sign painting in 87 

Car or carriage painting — striping on 87 

Car or carriage painting — transfers on 87 

Car or carriage painting — varnishing on 88 

Carnation tint — how made 146 

Ceilings — how to hang with wall paper 324 

Celestial blue tint — how made 146 

Cement — to paint in exterior painting 188 

Cerulean blue tint — how made 146 

Chamois tint — how made 146 

Chamoline tint — how made 146 

Chartreuse tint — how made 146 

Chestnut tint — how made 146 

China painting — general remarks on 94 

China painting — how to paint on 97 

China painting — material used for 95 

China painting — tools used in .• 96 

China painting — vitrifying the colors 98 

Chocolate tint — how made .» 146 

Cinnamon tint — how made i47 

Claret tint — how made i47 

Claybank tint — how made i47 

Clay drab tint — how made i47 

Cleaning for wall paper — how made 327 

Cloud color in scene painting 356 

Cobalt blue tint — how made i47 

Cocoanut brown tint — how made i47 

Colonial yellow tint— how made I47 

Colors — baryta white — its uses 99 

Colors — blacks — Brunswick 132 

Colors — blacks — carbon 131 

Colors — blacks — coach 132 

Colors — blacks — drop 132 

Colors — blacks — gas i3i 



Index 

Colors — blacks — general remarks on 131 

Colors — blacks — ivory 131 

Colors — blacks — lamp 131 

Colors — blacks — lead or plumbago 132 

Colors — blues — cerulean 126 

Colors — blues — cobalt 125 

Colors — blues— general remarks on 125 

Colors — blues — indigo 126 

Colors — blues — Prussian 125 

Colors — blues — ultramarine 125 

Colors — browns — general remarks upon 128 

Colors — browns — metallic 130 

Colors — browns — umber — burnt and raw 129 

Colors — browns — siennas — burnt and raw 129 

Colors — browns — vandyke 129 

Colors — greens — chrome 127 

Colors — greens — cobalt or zinc 127 

Colors — greens — general remarks on 127 

Colors — greens — Paris ^^7 

Colors — greens — ultramarine 127 

Colors — greens — viridian 127 

Colors — greens — zinc or cobalt 127 

Colors — greens — verdigris 128 

Colors — reds — American vermillion 118 

Colors — reds — Chinese vermillion 1 19 

Colors — reds — English vermillion 118 

Colors — reds — general remarks on 115 

Colors — reds — imitation vermillions 120 

Colors — reds — Indian 1 16 

Colors — reds — lakes 121 

Colors — reds — orange mineral 118 

Colors — reds — oxide of iron i iS 

Colors — reds — Pompeian 116 

Colors — reds — red lead 118 

Colors — red — Tuscan ii7 

Colors — reds — Venetian US 

Colors — whites — aluminous white earths 103 

Colors — whites — American zinc white in 

Colors — whites — cretaceous earth whites 103 

Colors — whites — general remarks on , 102 



Index 

Colors — whites — siHcious earth whites 103 

Colors — whites — white lead — Dutch process described 104 

Colors — whites — white lead — stack system described 105 

Colors — whites — white lead — sublimed 107 

Colors— whites — zinc white — American process 112 

Colors — whites — zinc white — French process no 

Colors — whites — zinc white — general remarks on 108 

Colors — whites — zinc white — process of manufacturing 109 

Colors — yellows — chrome yellows 122 

Colors — yellows — general remarks on 121 

Colors — yellows — ochres 121 

Colors — yellows — other yellows 124 

Colors — yellows — yellow lakes 124 

Color testing — general remarks on 158 

Color testing — how to determine their purity 159 

Color testing — how to determine fineness of grinding 160 

Color testing — how to determine strength of coloring 163 

Color testing — how to determine body and spreading 162 

Conditions required for good varnishing 135 

Contrasting harmony — primaries, secondaries and tertiaries, .136 

Copper tint — how made 147 

Coral pink tint — how made 147 

Cotrine tint — how made 147 

Cream tint — how made 147 

Crimson tint — how made 147 

Curled maple — how to grain 254 

D 

Damar varnish — its uses in enamelling 199 

Dead flat — in flatting 204 

Dead leaf color — to make in scene painting 356 

Designing stencils — in stencilling 405 

Distant foliage — in scene painting 35^ 

Distemper painting — in fresco 207 

Dove marble — how imitated 264 

Dove tint — how made 147 

Dregs of wine tint — how made 147 

Drop black — its uses (see colors) 132 

Dryers for paint — its uses 290 



Index 

Dry paste powders in paper hanging , 319 

Dusters (see brushes) 33 

Dutch process white lead (see colors) 104 

E 

Ecru tints — how made 148 

Egg shell gloss — in flatting 203 

Egyptian green tint — how made 148 

Egyptian green marble — how imitated .264 

Electric blue tint — how made 148 

Emerald blue tint — how made 148 

Enamelling — general remarks on 197 

Enamelling — how applied 198 

Enamelling — in white and gold 200 

English Vermillion (see colors) 118 

Estimating 165 

Extension walking boards (see painters' tools) 340 

Exterior painting 174 

F 

Fan overgrainers (see brushes) 42 

Fawn tint — how made 148 

Flesh color tint — how made 148 

Filling for old wooden buildings 193 

Fire reflection tint in scene painting 356 

Fitch varnish brushes (see brushes) 50 

Fixed oils (see oils) 276 

Flatting — brick painting on exteriors 192 

Flatting — dead flatting 204 

Flatting — egg shell gloss 203 

Flatting — how to prepare for 203 

Flatting — in interior painting 205 

Flatting — stippling it 205 

Florentine marble — how imitated - 266 

Foliage (distant) in scene painting 35^ 

French blue tint — how made 148 

French grey tint — how made 148 

French red tint — how made 148 

Fresco — fire cracks — how to kill 207 

Fresco — general remarks on ao6 



Index 

Fresco — in oil 206 

Fresco — in water colors 205 

Fresco — material needed in 211 

Fresco — tools needed 211 

Furniture rubbing brushes 45 

G 

Gas or carbon black (see colors) 131 

Gasoline torches for burning off paint 335 

Gazelle tint — how made 148 

General remarks on adulteration 8 

General remarks on blistering of paint 18 

General remarks on brushes 22 

General remarks on calcimining 57 

General remarks on carriage painting 70 

General remarks on china painting 94 

General remarks on colors 131 

General remarks on color harmony 135 

General remarks on. color mixing of tints 140 

General remarks on color testing 159 

General remarks on' enamelling 197 

General remarks on estimating 165 

General remarks on exterior painting 174 

General remarks on fresco painting 206 

General remarks on gilding 215 

General remarks on graining 241 

General remarks on marbling 260 

General remarks on oils and dryers 279 

General remarks on paperhangers' tools 301 

General remarks on painters' tools 329 

General remarks on scene painting 343 

General remarks on sign painting 359 

General remarks on stains and staining 390 

General remarks on stencilling 402 

General remarks on varnishes 4^5 

General remarks on varnishing 426 

General remarks on white lead (see colors) 104 

General remarks on zinc white (see colors) 1 12 

Geranium tint — how made 14? 



Index 

Gilders' tip — (see brushes) 44 

Gilding — ductibility of gold 218 

Gilding — gold and its alloys 219 

Gilding — in oil on wood, etc 221 

Gilding — japan gold size 224 

Gilding — preparing fat oil size for 220 

Gilding — preparing wood and other surfaces for 225 

Gilding on glass — how to apply the gold 227 

Gilding on glass — how to prepare the size 227 

Gilding on glass — how to back up the gold 228 

Gilding on glass — how to make a gilder's cushion 228 

Glue brushes (see brushes) 34 

Graining — ash, how done 255 

Graining — chestnut, how done 257 

Graining — cherry, how done 253 

Graining — oak, how done 244 

Graining — mahogany, how done 256 

Graining — maple, how done 254 

Graining — rosewood, how done 243, 257 

Graining — satinwood, how done 257 

Graining — sycamore, how done 257 

Graining — walnut, how done 258 

Granite stone — how imitated 272 

Grass green tint in scene painting 357 

Granite blue tint — how made 149 

^»ray green tint — how made I49 

Gray stone tint — how made I49 

Grays, all shades — how made 149 

Gray drab tints — how made 149 

Greens — (see colors) 127 

Green stone tint — how made I49 

H 

Hanging wall paper — ceilings 324 

Hanging wall paper — walls 2^3 

Hanging wall paper— borders 325 

Hanging burlaps 326 

Harmony of color by analogy 134 

Harmony of color by contrast -135 



Index 

Hay color tint— how made 150 

Heliotrope — how made 150 

Highlight oil-color method of wall decoration 441 

How to clean wall paper and distemper work 327 

How to enamel interior wood work 197 

How to gild on glass 362 

How to gild on wood, etc 361 

How to paint brick buildings 203 

How to paint cement buildings 204 

How to paint iron buildings 202 

How to paint stone buildings 203 

How to paint imitation agate marble 270 

How to paint imitation brocatello marble 267 

How to paint imitation black and gold marble 266 

How to Paint imitation dove marble 264 

How to paint imitation Egyptian green marble 266 

How to paint Florentine marble 266 

How to paint granite marble 270 

How to paint — general remarks on marble 260 

How to paint Italian pink marble .'268 

How to paint jasper marble 272 

How to paint red porphyry marble 271 

How to paint sienna marble 268 

How to paint white veined marble 269 

How to paint Swedish porphyry marble 271 

How to paint Swiss porphyry marble 271 

How to prepare dry-paste for paper hanging 319 

How to prepare flour paste for paper hanging 319 

How to prepare priming coat for exterior painting 176 

How to prepare second coat for exterior painting 178 

How to prepare size for gilding 65 

How to prepare size for walls 216 

How to prepare third coat in exterior painting 179 

How to test for adulterations in colors 8, 158 

How to test for amount of adulteration in colors 11 

How to test with scale test 10 

How to use scale test for white lead 12 

How to tint oil colors 140 

How to tint water colors 141 



Index 



I 



Indian red (see colors) .' Ii6 

Indian yellow (see colors) 124 

Indigo (see colors) 126 

Indian brown tint — how made 150 

Indian red tint — how made 150 

Iron tint — how made 150 

Iron buildings — how to paint 150 

Ivy green tint — how made 150 

Italian pink marble — how imitated 268 

J 

Japans and varnishes as vehicles 290 

Japan dryers in painting 291 

Japan gold size -291 

Jasper tint — how to make 150 

Jasper stone — how to imitate 272 

Jonquil tint — how made 150 

K 

Knifing in lead in carriage painting 80 

Knives — casing in paperhangers' tools 310 

Knives — putty knives in painters' tools 334 

Knives — rotary in paperhangers' tools 309 

Knives — scraping in paperhangers' tools 333 

L 

Ladders— in painters' tools 33^ 

Ladders step— in painters' tools 330 

Ladders jacks— in painters' tools 337 

Lakes all kinds— (see painters' colors) 121 

Lamp black — (see colors) ^31 

Lavender oil — in china painting 90 

Lavender tint — how made ^50 

Laying out the design in scene painting 353 

Lead color tint — how made ^50 

Leaf buds tint — how made ^50 



Index 

Leather tint — how made 150 

Lemon tint — how made 150 

Lilac tint — how made 150 

Linseed oil in oils and driers 273 

Linseed oil (boiled) in oils and driers 283 

Location for scene painting studio 344 

London smoke tint — how made 150 

M 

Magenta tint — how made 151 

Mahogany — how grained 256 

Manilla tint — how made 151 

Maple — how grained 254 

Marbling — agate, how imitated 270 

Marbling — brocatello, how imitated 267 

Marbling — black and gold, how imitated 266 

Marbling — dove, how imitated 264 

Marbling — Egyptian green, how imitated 266 

Marbling — Florentine, how imitated 266 

Marbling — general remarks on 260 

Marbling — granites, how imitated 272 

Marbling — Italian pink, how imitated 268 

Marbling — jasper, how imitated 272 

Marbling — material used in imitated 261 

Marbling — red porphyry, how imitated 271 

Marbling — serpentine, how imitated 267 

Marbling — sienna, how imitated 268 

Marbling — Swedish porphyry, how imitated 271 

Marbling — Swiss porphyry, how imitated 271 

Marbling — tools used in 261 

Marigold tint — how made 15^ 

Maroon tint — how made 151 

Mastic tint — how made 151 

Mascot tint — how made 151 

Material used in brush manufacture 29 

Material used in calcimining 57 

Material used in carriage painting 72 

Material used in china painting 95 

Material used in fresco painting 211 



Index 

Material used in graining painting 253 

Material used in scene painting 345 

Material used in sign painting ' 363 

Material used in staining 392 

Material used in stencilling 411 

Mauve tint — how made 151 

Mexican red tint — how made 151 

Mignonette tint — how made 151 

Mixing colors in scene painting 355 

Moonlight skies in scene painting 356 

Moisture — in blistering 17 

Moorish red tint — how made 151 

Moss rose tint — how made 151 

Motthng brushes (see brushes) 44 

Mountain blue — how made 152 

N 

Naphtha 290 

Navy blue tint — how made 152 

Neutral blue tint — how made 152 

Nile blue tint — how made 152 

Normandy blue tint — how made 152 

Nut brown tint — how made 152 

Nut oil — (see oils and dryers) 287 

O 

Oak color tint — how made 152 

Oak graining — how done in oil 244 

Oak graining — how done in water colors .245 

Oak graining — how to prepare grounds for 241 

Ochres — (see colors) 121 

Oils and dryers — general remarks on 274 

Oils— fixed (the) 274 

Oil — fresco painting in 206 

Oil— gilding 221 

Oil — size for gilding 222 

Oil stains — how made 39^ 

Oil— volatile (the) 282 



Index 

Old gold tint — how made 152 

Olive tint — how made 152 

Olive brown tint — how made 152 

Opal gray tint — how made 153 

Orange tint — how made 153 

Orange brown tint — how made 153 

Orange mineral (see colors) 124 

Oriental blue tint — how made 153 

Oriental green tint — how made 153 

Ornamenting i-n carriage painting 87 

Ornamenting in fresco painting 206 

Oval paint brushes (see brushes) 29 

Oval varnish brushes (see brushes) 32 

Ox hair brushes (see brushes) 47 

Oxide of iron (see colors) 115 

P 

Painters* tools — brush keepers 330 

Painters' tools — extension walking boards 340 

Painters* tools — gasoline torches 335 

Painters' tools — general remarks on 329 

Painters' tools — ladders, all kinds 336 

Painters' tools — ladder steps 330 

Painters' tools — ladder jacks 337 

Painters' tools — ladder roof 338 

Painters' tools — paint mill 332 

Painters' tools — palette knives 334 

Painters' tools — plank supporters 339 

Painters' tools — putty knives 334 

Painters' tools — sand bellows 332 

Painters' tools — scraping knives 333 

Painters' tools — scaffolding 340 

Painters' tools — strainers and painters' tinware 33i 

Painters' tools — swing scaffolds 33^ 

Painters' tools — tressles, all kinds 34° 

Painting a bath tub 294 

Painting new and old buildings, exterior I74 

Painting walls for fresco in oil 206 

Painting walls for fresco in water colors 63 



Index 

Painting walls on glass 293 

Paper hangers' tools — general remarks on 301 

Paper hangers' tools — casing knives 310 

Paper hangers' tools — cutting knives 308 

Paper hangers' tools — paste brushes 302 

Paper hangers' tools— pasting tables 301 

Paper hangers' tools — plumb bobs and levels 312 

Paper hangers' tools — rotary knives 309 

Paper hangers' tools— seam rollers 303, 304, 305 

Paper hangers' tools — smoothing brushes 306 

Paper hangers' tools — smoothing rollers 306 

Paper hangers' tools — trimming machines 3^7 

Paper hanging — general remarks on 3^3 

Paper hanging — how to clean dirty wall paper 3^7 

Paper hanging — how to hang borders 325 

Paper hanging — how to hang burlaps 326 

Paper hanging — how to hang ceilings 324 

Paper hanging — how to hang muslin strips on wood 326 

Paper hanging — how to hang walls 323 

Paper hanging — how to make pastes 3^9 

Paper hanging— how to paste the strips 320 

Paper hanging — how to patch holes and cracks in plaster . .322 

Paper hanging— proper conditions for 321 

Paper hanging — how to trim paper with knives 323 

Paper hanging— how to trim paper with machine .\ . .323 

Paris Green — (see colors) 127 

Peach blossom tint— how made I53 

Pearl tint — how made I53 

Peacock blue tint — how made I53 

Pea green tint — how made I53 

Persian orange tint — how made iS3 

Pigments — (see colors) 95 

Pink tint — how made I53 

Pistache tint — how made I53 

Plumbago — (see colors) 132 

Plum color tint — how made I53 

Polishing brush for wax (see brushes) 40 

Pompeian blue tint — how made i53 

Pompeian red tint — how made I54 

Poppy seed oil — (see oil and dryers) 286 



Index 

Porphyry stone— how imitated 271 

Portland stone tint — how made 154 

Pouring back varnish — (see varnishing) 216 

Preparing rooms for stencilling 413 

Price lists for painting, glazing, graining, marbling 165 

Priming new buildings 174 

Purples in scene painting 355 

Purity of tone in colors — how tested for 159 



Quaker green tint — how made 154 

R 

Recipes for making oil stains 396 

Recipes for making spirit stains 397 

Recipes for making water stains 399 

Red colors — American vermillion 118 

Red colors — Chinese vermillion 119 

Red color^— English vermillion 118 

Red colors — general remarks on 115 

Red colors — lakes 121 

Red colors — imitation vermillions 120 

Red colors — Indian reds 116 

Red colors — oxide of iron (red) 115 

Red colors — Pompeian 116 

Red colors — red lead 118 

Red colors — Tuscan 117 

Repainting — ^bath tubs 294 

Round paint bristle brushes (see brushes) 28 

Roan tint — how made 154 

Robins' G^gg blue tint — how made 154 

Rocks, stones, etc., in scene painting .• 356 

Roof ladder hooks — (see painters' tools) 338 

Rosewood — how grained 243 

Roughstuff in carriage painting 82 

Rubbing rough stuff 83 

Russet tint — how made I54 

Russian grey tint — how made 154 



Index 

S 

Sable— black and red brushes (see brushes) 26 

Sage green tint — how made I54 

Salmon tint — how made I54 

Sand bellows (see painters' tools) i55 

Sap green tint — how made i55 

Sapphire blue tint — how made I55 

Sash tool — (see brushes) 34 

Scaffolding in calcimining 63 

Scaffold jacks (see painters' tools) 337 

Scale test— in adulteration of paint 10 

Scarlet tint — how made i55 

Scene painting — brick tint in 357 

Scene painting — cloud tint in 350, 

Scene painting— dead leaf tint in 35^ 

Scene painting — foliage green tint in 355 

Scene painting— foliage distant tint in 35^ 

Scene painting — fire reflection tint in 35^ 

Scene painting— general remarks on 343 

Scene painting— gold tone tint in 35^ 

Scene painting— grass green tint in 357 

Scene painting— laying out designs in scene painting 353 

Scene painting— location for 344 

Scene painting — material used in 355 

Scene painting— mixing colors for 347 

Scene painting— moonlight tint in 35^ 

Scene painting — purple tint in 355 

Scene painting— rock stone, etc., tints in 35^ 

Scene painting— sea water, tints in 35^ 

Scene painting — sky, tints in 355 

Scene painting— tools used in 34^ 

Scene painting— trunks of trees, tints in 357 

Scraping knives in paper hanging 333 

Scrub brush (see painters' tools) 34 

Sea green tint— how made ^55 

Sea brown tint — how made ^55 

Seal brown tint— how made ^55 

Secondary colors — what they are ^30 

Serpentine marble— how imitated ^"7 

Sky blue tint— bow made • ^55 



Index 

Shrimp pink tint— how made 155 

Siennas, raw and burnt (see colors) 129 

Signs in carriage painting 87 

Sign painting — advertising 386 

Sign painting— bulletin 387 

Sign painting— general remarks on 359 

Sign painting gold — general remarks on 378 

Sign painting gold — on glass 383 

Sign painting gold — on wood and other surfaces 379 

Sign painting — material used in 363 

Sign painting — muslin 382 

Sign painting — tools used in 363 

Sign painting — shading the letters 364 

Sign painting — spacing the lettering .365 

Slate tint — how made 155 

Smoothing paper hangers' brush (see brushes) 306 

Snuff color tint — how made 155 

Spoke brush (see brushes) 34 

Spruce yellow tint — how made 155 

Statuary painting — general remarks on 297 

Statuary painting — how to prepare for it 298 

Statuary painting — how to do the painting 299 

Step ladders (see painters' tools) 330 

Stains and staining — general remarks on 390 

Stains and staining — recipes for water stains 399 

Stains and staining — recipes for oil stains 396 

Stains and staining — recipes for spirit stains 397 

Stains and staining — how to stain in oil, water or spirit 393 

Stains and staining — various methods of 392 

Stains and staining — what grained staining is 392 

Stains and staining — why wood is stained 39i 

Stencils and stencilling — general remarks on 402 

Stencils and stencilling — designing of -405 

Stencils and stencilling — in water colors 412 

Stencils and stencilling — in oil colors 412 

Stencils and stencilling — how to cut 410 

Stencils and stencilling — material used in 411 

Stencils and stencilling — preparing rooms for 413 

Stencils and stencilling— stencil paper— how prepared 411 

Stencils and stencilling — tools used in 410 



Index 

Stencils and stencilling — where chiefly used 403 

Stipling— in flat painting 205 

Stipling — in walnut graining 258 

Stone color and yellow drab tints — how made i55 

Straw tint — how made I55 

Strength of colors — how to test for 10 

Striping — in carriage painting 87 

Sublimed lead (see colors) 107 

Surfaces — in calcimining 62 

Surfaces — what they are 63 

Swedish porphyry — how imitated 271 

Swing scaffolds — (see painters' tools) 33^ 

Swiss porphyry — how imitated 271 

Sycamore — how grained 257 

T 

Tally-ho tint— how made 156 

Tampico — (see brushes) 27 

Tan color tint — how made 156 

Terra cotta tint — how made 156 

Tertiary colors — what they are 136 

Tints — how made from oil colors 140 

Tints — how made from water colors 142 

Tools used in fresco painting '. 211 

Tools used in graining 243 

Tools used in painting 230 

Tools used in paper hanging 301 

Tools used in staining , 390 

Tools used in stencilling 410 

Tools used in varnishing 432 

Tub (bath) — how to repaint 294 

Turquoise blue tint — how made 156 

Turpentine — in oils and dryers 289 

Tuscan red — (see colors) 117 

Transfers — in carriage painting 87 

Tressles — see painters* tools 340 

Trimming wall paper with knives 3^3 

Trimming wall paper with machine 3^3 

Trunks of trees tint in. scene painting v"'357 



Index 

V 

Vandyke brown — (see colors) 129 

Various methods of staining 200 

Varnish brushes bristle, oval and flat (see brushes) 26 

Varnish brushes badger hair (see brushes) 26 

Varnish brushes black and red sable (see brushes) 26 

Varnish brushes camel hair (see brushes) 27 

Varnish brushes ox hair (see brushes) 26 

Varnishing — conditions for good 428 

Varnishing — general remarks on 426 

Varnishing — how to arrange rooms for 430 

Varnishing — how to arrange shops for 429 

Varnishing — pouring back varnish in can 432 

Varnishing — tools needed in 432 

Vehicles — fixed oils 272 

Vehicles — general remarks on 436 

Vehicles — glues and adjuncts *. 438 

Vehicles — gum arabic 477 

Vehicles — japans and varnishes 437 

Vehicles — oil of lavender 97 

Vehicles — spirits 98 

Vehicles — turpentine 283 

Vehicles — volatile oils 282 

Venetian red (see colors) 115 

Vermillion — American (see colors) 118 

Vermillion — Chinese (see colors) 119 

Vermillion — English (see colors) 1 18 

Vermillion — imitation (see colors) 120 

Verd antique marble — how imitated 264 

Vienna Crown tint — how made 156 

Virwian (see colors) 127 

Violet tint — how made 156 

Vitrifying colors in china painting 98 

W 

Wall decoration, highlight oil-color method 441 

Walls — right condition for calcimining 63 

Walls — right condition for paper hanging 321 

Walls — paint brushes (see brushes) 31 

Walls — stippler (see brushes) 30 



Index 

Walking board extension — see painters' tools 340 

Water color stencilling — how done 412 

Water green tint — how made 156 

Water stains — how made 399 

Washing off old paper in paper Hanging 314 

Wax floor polishing brushes (see brushes) 40 

White baryta (see colors) 103 

White earths — aluminous (see colors) 103 

White earths — cretaceous (see colors) 103 

White earths — silicious (see colors) 104 

White lead — general remarks on 105 

White lead — how made 105 

White lead — how to test for adulteration 10 

White and light tints in enameling 208 

White veined marble — how imitated 271 

Why paint blisters 18 

Willow green tint — how made 156 

Wine color tint — how made 156 

Wooden buildings new — how to paint I74 

Wooden buildings old — how to paint 190 

Y 

Yellows— chrome (see colors) 122 

Yellows — general remarks on (see colors) 121 

Yellows — ochres ( see colors) 121 

Yellows— other yellows (see colors) 124 

Yellow bronze tint— how made I57 

Z 

Zinc green (see cobalt green in colors) 12S 

Zinc white — American (see colors) 112 

Zinc white — French (see colors) no 

Zinc white — general remarks on (see colors) 108 

Zinc white — its uses (see colors) 109 

Zinz white— in enamelling 208 



THE UP-TO-DATE 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 




A PANELED CEILING TN OAK 



PREFACE 

Some twelve or fourteen years ago, I prepared a 
little manual on "Hardwood Finishing," which became 
quite popular, and to some extent remains so up to 
the present writing. The little work, however, was 
far from complete, and I have been asked by a large 
number of woodworkers to extend the limits of the 
work, or to reorganize and add more to the subject of 
wood preparation. 

After considering the matter, I was impressed by 
the latter suggestion, as the title "Hardwood Finisher" 
seemed to be somewhat misleading, as the intention 
of the book was to give general instructions in 
finishing woods of all kinds — hard and soft — and not 
only making them ready for the varnisher and 
polisher, but also to instruct the workman in the 
latter process as well as the former. I have therefore 
embodied in this new work a number of directions 
for making and finishing the raw wood, making it 
ready for the finisher or varnisher and polisher; and 
have'also given directions and formulae for mixing the 
materials and applying them to the prepared wood. 

It goes without saying, that to make a work of this 
kind useful, it must contain much that has been 
published before, and much that is taken from the 
workshop and from the experience of workmen, 
many of whom have given me their own methods of 
working. I am also indebted to a number of current 
journals, such as "Carpentry and Building," "The 
National Builder," "Scientific American," "The 

S 



6 PREFACE 

Carpenter/' "The Woodworker," "The English 
Mechanic," "The Painter's Gazette," and several 
others, to whom I offer thanks for such matter as I 
have made use of. 

While the present work may not be as complete as 
it might be, I have some reason to think it very much 
superior to any work of the kind now in the market, 
as it covers more ground, and deals with the subject 
of wood-finishing in a more extended and complete 
manner than any other work devoted to the subject 
that I know of. However, be this as it may, every 
effort has been made to obtain the best and latest 
information on the subject and to put it in such a 
form that the regular every-day workman may under- 
stand what is intended to be conveyed. If I have 
failed to make everything clear to the reader it is 
because of the lack of ability on my part, not because 
of desire to do so. 

Fred T. Hodgson. 



The Up-to-Date Hardwood Finisher 

PART ONE 
INTRODUCTORY 

Wood is, and always has been, one of the most 
important and useful materials that Dame Nature has 
vouchsafed to bless humanity with, and the latter's 
necessities and ingenuity have made the best of the 
circumstances. 

It need hardly be said that Nature seemed to have 
well understood the wants of her children and pro- 
vided for them in a most liberal manner, for it is said 
that nearly one-third of the earth's surface is covered 
by trees; all of which are, in some form or another, 
contributory to the wants and pleasures of man. 

The introduction of machinery for the rapid working 
of nearly all kinds of intricate mouldings and shapes 
of woodwork has, in a great measure, had a tendency 
to elevate the taste of the whole community, though 
I must confess that artistic excellence of a high order, 
in the mechanical arts, is now scarcely found among 
our younger workmen, machinery having almost done 
away with the necessity for the fine kinds of hand 
and brain work. Fashion, which rules despotically 
in the wardrobe, influences, to a greater or lessL-r 
degree, the style and finish of woodwork and, to a 
certain extent, the kind of wood that must be used for 
certain purposes. Thirty or forty years ago no other 

7 



8 THE UP-TO-DATE 

wood than clean white pine would be permitted to do 
service in a building. All woodwork had to be pine; 
floors, doors, windows, even to the bath fittings. 
Then Dame Fashion sent forth her decree and a 
mixture of white and Southern pine was used, 
followed shortly afterward by the abominable 
mixture of ash, walnut and chestnut. Some architect, 
who deserves well of his country, introduced all 
walnut and all mahogany fitments; and at once people 
of taste who saw this manner of finish noticed its 
superiority over the medley; and the fashion then of 
finishing in one kind of wood became the rage. Wal- 
nut was found too dark for general purposes and was 
soon abandoned for the lighter woods; chestnut, 
sycamore, ash, cherry, birch and oak were then tried, 
but I believe I voice the opinion of a majority of 
architects when I say that, with the exception of oak, 
the light-colored woods were not successful, from an 
aesthetic point of view, and it is on record that many 
buildings finished in these woods have since had their 
woodwork cleaned and stained to imitate darker 
woods or have been painted. One of the valuable 
qualities of white oak is, that it grows richer in color 
as it gets older, and no matter how it is finished, so 
long as the grain is visible, it mellows and improves 
with age. This is a quality that no other of our 
American woods possesses in the same degree. All 
the oaks have this quality to a certain extent, but the 
white oak {Quercus alba) possesses it more than any 
other. Mahogany, too, has this quality largely, if 
true Spanish mahogany is used, but little of this is in 
the market; though there are many woods that have the 
appearance of mahogany, and are called mahogany, 
such as cherry and black birch, and both buyer and 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 9 

user are oftentimes deceived, and pay for what they do 
not get. 

Americans have often been reproached with will- 
fully or ignorantly ignoring or destroying their own 
handsome woods, while importing from abroad at 
excessive cost, and the payment of heavy duties, 
foreign woods which are much inferior to many of 
native growth. This folly prevailed at a time when 
it was fashionable and even popular to believe there 
was no merit in domestic productions of any sort. 
This state of things, however, is now at an end, and 
in the neighborhood of all large towns, and in country 
places as well, a finish in hardwood is the rule, and a 
finish in pine the exception, if the building to be fin- 
ished makes any pretension of being "up to the times." 

With regard to the difference in cost between a 
finish in the best clear pine, and the best selected 
hardwood, there is really but little, if any, if we take 
into consideration durability and good taste. As 
between pine wood and good, well finished hardwood, 
the disparity in value and merit is so very little as to 
completely silence any comparison. Between poor 
pine and poor hardwood the preference should be by 
all means given to the former; because poor pine as 
it reveals its defects can be puttied and painted in a 
manner to disguise them; whereas the defects of poor 
hardwood are almost incurable. The rationale of the 
subject seems to resolve itself into the following 
statement: 

Modern taste in expensive dwellings calls for the 
free use of hardwoods. It is immaterial which are 
used, but highly essential that the best seasoned woods 
should be selected; and, further, that they should be 
skillfully treated and finished. 



10 THE UP-TO-DATE 

The principal recommendation of hardwood is that 
\t admits of a treatment which renders it impervious 
to the effects of atmospheric changes and, therefore, 
can be made more durable and ultimately less expen- 
sive than pine wood. A hardwood that is well 
seasoned before use, that is treated with proper fillers 
to close up its pores, and then finished with successive 
coats of suitable varnish, well rubbed in with pumice- 
stone, being finally brought to a higher flat finish, 
presents the most attractive, serviceable and reliable 
style of woodwork than can be introduced into a house. 
Well finished hardwood obviates the expense and 
annoyance of constant renewals, which pine work calls 
for in patching, puttying and painting. The most 
brilliant gloss of finished hardwood can be restored by 
a skilled person without disturbing the furniture or 
carpets of a house. 

Pine work seems peculiarly and incomparably 
adapted for cheap work. A good article of common 
pine, suitable for ordinary work, can be procured and 
worked at considerably less expense than would be 
involved in using good hardwood. The use of poor 
hardwood in any work should not be tolerated or 
thought of under any circumstances, for the simple 
reason that it is certain to create annoyance and 
expense, which no house-owner, especially of moderate 
priced property, should be subjected to. 

Pine, however, is not the only soft wood that may 
be used in house finishing, but it is the most popular, 
because the most plentiful and doubtless the most 
satisfactory to deal with. Basswood, poplar, elm, 
whitewood, spruce and hemlock all make fairly good 
finishing woods when properly selected and properly 
treated; but, with the exception of elm, perb^s, all 



HARDWOOD FINISHER n 

of them require to be either painted or stained before 
a good finish can be obtained. Elm, black ash and 
chestnut have all coarse grain, and are unsuited for 
tasteful work, though all right for ordinary fitments; 
and indeed may be used for kitchen or bathroom finish 
in fairly good houses. Later on I will deal with each 
one of them, and some other of our native woods at 
length. 

The present methods of hardwood finishing are 
comparatively new, so far as the manner of operation 
and materials are concerned; as I can find nothing 
dating farther back than 1850 in the vast amount of 
literature at my command that treats in any way 
intelligently on the subject; true, there are methods 
of varnishing, lacquering and French polishing given; 
also treatment on finishing in wax, notably a small 
pamphlet containing a treatise on "The Shining Up of 
Woodwork," dating as far back as 1809, and published 
in London. This little treatise is the first to make 
mention of a wood-filler being employed. The author 
says that "the pores of the wood ought to be sealed up 
with a mixture made of ground chalk or rotten stone 
coloured like the wood, and mixed with glue water. 
Cover the work to be shined up with the mixture, then 
wipe off and when hard and dry, smooth off finely 
with shark-skin and hair-clothe." He then goes on 
to show how to finish in wax or with shellac, as the 
case may be. He says nothing of French polishing, 
but gives directions for varnishing and rubbing down 
with rotten stone. 

To-day there are quite a number of works published 
on wood-finishing, which shows how much interest is 
taken in the subject. 

The introduction of the modern methods of polishing 



12 THE UP-TO-DATE 

finished woodwork has so reduced the cost of fine 
furniture and elaborately finished woodwork, that now 
the poor man may have in his house one or more 
pieces of finely wrought work, as well as the man of 
wealth. French polishing was a costly operation, 
and made more costly because of the secrecy sur- 
rounding the process. Experts were bound not to 
teach others the process unless they were well paid 
for it, and the pupil was compelled to take a solemn 
oath that he would not divulge the secret or convey to 
others the method, unless he was paid a large sum, 
often as high as $ioo. French polish when well done 
is certainly a fine finish, and while still costly, is often 
employed in finishing high-class furniture and wood- 
work in costly buildings, but its general use is rapidly 
falling off; yet no wood-finisher is completely rounded 
off unless he has thorough knowledge of the best 
French polishing, and in the present work I purpose 
giving a thorough description of this method, with 
illustrations of the appliances made use of in the 
process. 

While it is not my intention to write a treatise on 
the useful woods of America, I do not think it will be 
out of place to describe a few of them, showing their 
manner of growth, their peculiarities, durability, and 
the uses they can be put to, with directions for working 
and finishing them. 

In every description of wood the elementary com- 
position of the organic tissue is the same, but the 
latter is found associated with very variable organic 
elements, according to the species of the tree. 

Pine trees, for example, contain turpentine, and oak 
trees tannin. The combustible part of wood is this 
same organic tissue. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 13 

The exterior characteristics of woods are very 
different from one another. Thus certain wood is 
soft and tender and of a loose tissue, whilst another 
is hard and of a compact grain. Thence there is quite 
a natural division into two classes. The first includes 
all the soft and tender woods, amongst which may be 
mentioned the pines, white wood or plane tree, bass- 
wood, poplar, etc. The second includes all the heavy 
and hard wood, such as the oaks, maples, beech, birch, 
cherry, walnut, etc. 

When wood is first cut down as timber, it contains 
from 40 to 45 per cent of water, but this quantity 
gradually lessens until it is said to be thoroughly 
seasoned, when it only contains from 5 to 7 per cent. 
Moisture, however, is always present in wood, and as 
it gets older, if exposed to the air, will take in from 10 
to 15 per cent. It then becomes very hydrometrical, 
and loses or absorbs water according to the state of 
dryness or humidity of the surrounding air. 

The density of wood, like that of all porous bodies, 
can be considered in two different ways, and can be 
looked for under its apparent volume. The only 
method which can then be employed consists in form- 
ing a block of the wood, the volume of which can be 
easily measured, and then taking the weight of it. 
The ratio of this weight to that of the same bulk of water 
would be the density sought for. This density for the 
same wood varies according to the degree of seasoning 
it has had, and to the form and position of the fibers 
in the sample. A block six inches square cut from 
a knot, or burl, or a cross-grained part of a tree, would 
be considerably more dense, and weigh more, than 
would a block of a similar size cut from the same tree, 
if it was straight-grained and uniform. 



14 THE UP-TO-DATE 

It is the density of the harder woods that makes 
them popular with wood-finishers. A hard, close- 
grained wood requires little or no filler, and offers 
better opportunities to the polisher than do the woods 
of lesser density. 

The use of nearly all kinds of hardwood in the 
general finish of good houses, has completely taken the 
place of using pine or other soft woods in wainscoting, 
floors, doors and general fitments. The variety of 
the woods employed in these finishings has greatly 
increased within the last few years. How so many of 
these beautiful and suitable woods could have fallen 
into disuse within the present century is one of the 
decorative mysteries of this period. Walnut, which 
was the pioneer of the new departure, still remains in 
use, where cost is no object, although its dull color 
and unpolished surface are dingy and somber. It has 
had its use, however, in directing attention to the 
employment of solid woods, though it is now on the 
retired list. Mahogany is at present in high favor, the 
variety known as San Domingo mahogany being 
especially rare and desirable. When new it has a 
reddish yellow tone, which grows dark and rich with 
age. The old wood is much in demand for use in 
interior finishings and for furniture, and the genuine 
old pieces are highly prized by their possessors. 
Cherry is popular for common use, though at first 
falsified by the red stain, which destroyed its natural 
beauty and gave it no artificial excellence. Unstained 
cherry has a yellowish brown color, polishes well, and 
is excellent for interior woodwork, its moderate cost 
making it available for general use, though now getting 
very scarce. If any stain is required, it should be in 
the dark tones resembling mahogany color. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 15 

Black birch is one of the most beautiful native 
woods, having a grain resembling that of mahogany, 
and taking a fine satin-like polish. Unstained, it has 
a warm, rich yellow tone, and its darkened finish can 
hardly be distinguished from the more costly tropical 
wood. Yellow birch, though less beautiful and costly, 
is excellent in grain and color and is often used for 
fine floorings. The different varieties of oak are well 
adapted to interior uses, the wood being solid and 
durable, while each year of wear adds a depth and 
richess of color and a smoothess and polish to its dark 
surface. It has a beautiful grain, and is a popular 
wood for interior finishings and the floors of modern 
houses. After centuries of wear this useful wood is 
found in the houses of both humble and royal history 
as black and smooth as ebony. Butternut resembles 
oak in color, though not in grain, polishes finely and 
takes a carved decoration well, and ash and elm are 
often found as deceptive substitutes for oak, especially 
in its darker or so-called antique stains. Rosewood is 
one of the most beautiful woods in use, rich and deep 
in tone and capable of a mirror-like finish. It is costly 
enough to keep the merit of rarity. 

Apple wood carves finely and polishes well, making 
excellent panels; so also does the wood of the pear 
tree. Maple is in high favor, bird's-eye maple being 
one of the choicest of the light-colored woods, and 
especially suited to dainty and sumptuous uses. 
Chestnut and ash are serviceable and inexpensive 
light woods. 

As these woods come into more general use, their 
genuineness and elegance giving to the houses in which 
they are placed one of the strongest assurances of that 
permanency which is the best element of the new 



i6 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Renaissance, they will be more and more enriched with 
ornament. And here it will be difficult to avoid the 
besetting sin of abundant means and inartistic taste, 
which unfortunately are so often found in company. 
The honesty of material and the uses which it serves 
should never be concealed under complex decoration. 
Most hardwoods are beautiful enough in grain and 
color to give lasting satisfaction, and for every-day 
use no decoration beyond a touch of good carving 
should be applied. Where something more sumptuous 
is sought, carving and inlaying will make them elegant 
enough to satisfy the most exacting taste, and when 
properly varnished or polished no other method of 
decoration can excel it in beauty or refinement. 

I have deemed the foregoing introduction necessary, 
as it will enable the workman to have some idea of the 
development of the art of joinery, and the transition 
from the use of pine and the softer wood to that of 
the hard wood. 

In the following, it is my intention to take each of 
the woods most in use; describe them, say what I 
think they are best adapted for, and the best way to 
finish them, as far as my knowledge extends. By this 
means the reader will have, under one head, all the 
book contains concerning the particular wood he is 
about to finish. 

THE BETTER WOODS TO MAKE USE OF 

The wood most made use of at the present writing 
for interior finish, is oak. It is made into doors, 
sashes, stairs, base, cabinet cases, and wainscot. 

The working of oak, particularly in the framing up 
of panel-work, differs somewhat from ordinary pine or 
other soft wood panel work, inasmuch as the latter is 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



17 



generally painted and picked out in two or more colors; 
thus rendering it imperative to use sound stuff, and to 
have the work above suspicion. The material is 
generally so thin that the paneling should be stiffened 
with stout canvas glued to the back, which is often 
primed with red-lead paint to afford protection from 








Fig. 



Fia 2 



damp when the work is to be placed in a new building. 
It is usual to frame up the work with stuff varying in 
thickness from seven-eighths of an inch to one and a 
quarter inches, finished sizes. In some workshops it is 
not considered necessary to clean up the back of the 
work, though I think it always best to dress down the 



i8 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



joints on the back, and true it up with plane and 
straight-edge. All joints should be close and perfect, 
and tenons and mortises should be in the center of the 
stuff, and all should be well glued 
together and left to dry before 
fixing. 

The panel-work shown in Fig. 
I is framed with ij^ in. stuff, got 
to thickness and widths as shown 
in Fig. 2. The center framing is 
mitered together at the corners, 
which are further strengthened by 
the insertion, of a cross-tongue 
joint, while the side rails and top 
and bottom muntins are tenoned 
and pinned like all the other ten- 
ons in the framing. The moulding 
stuck on the edges (or in the solid) 
is not mitered in the same way as 
for ordinary work (see Figs. 3 and 
4); but the mitered corners are 
worked as shown in Figs. 5 
and 6, thus forming butt joints 
with mason-mitered corners to all 
moulded edges. These corners are 
worked on the bench after the 
paneling is glued up and cleaned 
off. 

The bottom rail is tongued into the skirting as shown 
in Fig. 8, and the top rail meets the festooned frieze 
board under the small necking mould as shown, the 
frieze board being tongued to the dentiled cornice 
also. This cornice is double-dentiled, one row of 
dentils being cut farther back than the other, as shown 




FiG. 6 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



19 



in Figs. 7 and 8. As usual with built-up cornices, this 
section can be worked on the four-cutter moulder or 
on a spindle machine; the dentiling, however, being 




Fia 7 



Fic. a 



best cut by hand. A cover-board lies at the back of 
the cornice, which is back rebated to receive the front 
edge of the cover-board. The three flutes over the 
top muntins have rounded-out top ends, and finish at 



20 THE UP-TO-DATE 

the bottom on a splay; whilst the festoons are pref- 
erably cut out of the solid, but are generally planted 
on unless otherwise specified. 

In fixing this class of work, which is, as a rule, 
screwed up, all fixing screws should be hidden, or the 
holes should be bored to take "corks" a little larger 
than the screw head, and the "corks" should be cut 
from wood closely matching that in which the hole is 
bored. The framing must be fixed as true and upright 
as possible (especially at external corners where 
mitered vertical joints occur), and be well scraped and 
cleaned down after the fixing is done. 

The illustrations are reproduced to the following 
scales: Figs, i and 2 are three-eighths of an inch to 
the foot; Figs. 3 to 6, half full size; Figs. 7 and 8, one 
and a half inches to the foot. 

While it is not the intention to enter into the sub- 
ject of joinery in this work, it will not be out of place 
to make a few remarks on the manner of doing some 
odd jobs of work that are not generally discussed in 
books of this kind, or if discussed, are not done so 
with a view of showing how the wood should be pre- 
pared for the polisher. The examples given in the 
foregoing are only offered as an illustration of how 
similar work should be prepared when made from 
solid wood. Where the work is composed of material 
"built up" or veneered, the manner of preparing it for 
the finisher may be very different, but this I will dis- 
cuss later on. 

Suppose a column, or a pillar or spindle is required 
having a spiral form* unless the workman is well 
acquainted with the method of laying out spirals, he 
will be up ap^ainst a proposition which he will find 
difficult to oolve. To meet a condition of this kind, 1 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



21 



show the following method of setting out such work. 
This example is intended to be prepared for the lathe, 
but, of course, it may be executed without the aid of 
a lathe, but in such case much patience and skill wUl 
be required. 

The sketch Fig. 9 shows the method of 
setting out the twist or spiral. First turn 
the wood round; then divide the circum- 
ference into four with lines, as shown, 
marked all the way down. Then, having 
decided on the size of your twist — and the 
same details apply to any size and depth 
— mark the cross-lines, and then the diag- 
onals, which you can easily do with a 
twist of the leg in the lathe, and both sides 
as shown by dotted lines. The gouge, 
held in this direction, will follow th^ re- 
quired twist. It is supposed the operator 
is acquainted with lathe work to some 
extent, and is aware of the methods and 
appliances made use of in turning spirals, 
and the sketch is only intended to instruct 
him in the manner of laying out the spiral. 
This will be found useful even in work 
where the column, etc., is not turned in a 
lathe, but is wrought by hand. 

Handwork of almost every kind in 
woodwork is rapidly going out of fashion p,Q^ ^ 

— more the pity — but now and again, men 
are found who insist on having their work done by 
hand, and it is well that every joiner should know how 
to go about the work with intelligence when such 
work is required. With this idea in view, I give here- 
with a few instructions and illustrations to help the 



22 THE UP-TO-DATE 

workman when he is confronted with problems such as 
I have indicated. 

Often dovetailing — an almost lost art — has to be 
done by hand on some particular job or piece of work, 
and, in order to prepare the workman for this pur- 
pose, I offer the following instructions, and give the 
accompanying illustration, which I think will materially 
aid him in his efforts. 

Dovetailing to a great many young workmen proves 
a pitfall, yet, when the method of laying out the work 
is once understood, it all seems easy enough. A 
dovetail joint, if made properly, requires no screws or 
nails, to hold it together or to bring the parts 
down to a proper joint; but in order to attain per- 
fection there are one or two points which must 
be attended to when making this kind of joint. 
First, the stuff must be faced up properly, using 
the trying plane, on the flat surface. In passing, 
I will just mention that in dovetailing, whether 
boxes, drawers, or whatever is being made, the face 
side is always the inside^ and the face edge is the bot- 
tom edge. 

Another point which is often neglected is to put in 
plenty of "pins" or dovetails. A very good rule for 
ordinary work in soft wood is to space them not less 
than i^in., or more than 2^in., from center to center; 
for hard wood, or for small work in thin wood, they 
should be spaced closer still. 

In setting out the pins, or rather the mortises in 
which the pins have to fit, a half dovetail should be 
placed at both top and bottom, as shown in Fig. lo, 
and the intermediate "tails" should be brought to an 
extreme point as shown at B in the drawings — that is, 
if neatness is an object; but if this has to give way to 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



23 




Fig. 10 



strength, then "tails" of the shape shown in Fig. ii, 
should be used. 

The bevels of the "tails" should be as shown in the 
drawings, and in no case should they be shaped as at 
,M, Fjg. 14. 1£ 
made like that, 
there would be 
great danger of 
the sides split- 
ting off at E, 
and although 
this shape at 
first sight would 
appear to be 
stronger than 
the other, it is 
really not so in 

practice. Also if one, two or three, or even more 
articles of the same size are being made, the dove- 
tails need not be set out on one piece only. The 
whole could be placed together in pairs as shown in 

Fig. 12, and the marks 
squared over as shown, then 
screwed in the vise together, 
and all cut at once with a 
fine tenon or back-saw, first 
of all sawing all the pieces 
off to exactly the same 
length. 
To mark the pins, screw one of the ends upright in 
the bench vise, with the top end about half an inch 
above the bench top, as at F, Fig. 13, taking care to 
keep the face side toward the bench. Then lay one of 
the sides on it, as at G, so that the squared-over marks 




Fig. 11 



24 



THE UP-TO-DATE 




/y ly ly y L 




































Fig. 13 



on the edges of G coincide with the inside of F, as at 

H. With the front end of the same saw as was used to 

cut the "tails," 
/^ /^ used as shown at 
I, mark the po- 
sition of each 
one on the end 
grain, and, be- 
fore removing 
the side board, 
number each 
piece as shown 
in the figure so 
that it is known 
which pieces go 
together. 
All four corners of each job in hand must be done in 

the same way, unless perhaps the work is for drawers or 

where the front 

only is required 

to be dove- 

tailed, although 

particular no- 
tice must be 

taken that the 

face side of the 

vertical piece 

must be towards 

the bench, and 

the horizontal 

piece under- 

neath; and in 

addition remember that the face edges of both pieces 

must always come together. These are the edges which 




Fig. 13 




HARDWOOD FINISHER 25 

must be kept level while marking. Neglect of these 
points is the reason of failure to produce good work 
when making dovetailed joints. 

In cutting the "pins" some regard must be paid to 
the kind of wood being used; soft pine requires more 
wood left outside the marks than oak or other hard- 
woods, but tak- 
ing ord i n ary 
work in any of 
the softer 
woods, about a 
sixty -fourth of 

an inch clear on ^'^ \^ -^ ^^^ ^^ 
each side of the 

mark will be ample, leaving rather less at the two half 
dovetails at the edges. 

I should have stated before that in cutting off the 
stuff for the ends of the box (or whatever is in hand) 
about half an inch extra length should be allowed, and 
in squaring across, this extra length should be given 
to the pin at each end, to be cut when the job is put 
together. 

Before the pins are sawed down, the marks on the 

outside (that is, 

^ «^ ^« ^' ^ wherethey 

come to a point) 
Fig 15 '"^^~^' ^ must be squared 

down as a guide 
for sawing parallel with the edges of the boards. This 
is a somewhat important part, and in Fig. 14 I have 
endeavored to show how they should and should not be 
cut. The "pin" K is parallel from point to heel, and 
this is correct, but not easy to manage. The "pin" at 
L is cut wedge-shaped, larger at the heel than at the 



26 THE UP-TO-DATE 

point, which is bad, being liable to split the boards, 
and also to show a badly fitting joint outside. M is 
cut slightly smaller at the heel than at the point, which 
is a good fault — there is no fear of splitting, and, unless 
overdone, a good fitting joint will result. N is cut out 
of parallel, which is the worst of all, and must on no 
account be done. 

All the pins being cut, the spare wood must be cut 

out, using very thin, sharp chisels. Some workers use 

a bow saw to remove the spare wood between the 

pins, but I do not consider it any advantage — the 

chisel has to be used after, and it is quicker to remove 

^^^ all the wood wfth the chisel at one time. 

(\/ I must not forget to emphasize the fact 

that it is necessary, in setting out, to use 

knife or chisel for all cross lines, both on 

/I 1x3 the sides and ends. Pencil will not do 

\_^ ^ li at all, if good work is expected. 

Fig. 16 Before putting together, each "pin" 

must be slightly pointed on all three sides, 
as shown in Fig. 15, so that they will enter freely, 
without bruising the wood. 

When putting together, the "pins" should be well 
glued and the sides driven on at once, using a block 
which is large enough to reach quite across the whole 
work. If this is omitted, splitting is apt to result. 
I have not touched upon putting the work together, 
as I do not think it necessary, because when the 
dovetails and "pins" are properly cut, they will be 
found to go together without any paring or cutting. 
Indeed, dovetails of any kind requiring fitting before 
going together may be put down as a botch job and 
unfit to be further finished. 

in this, I have dealt only with simple work, bul 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



27 




Fig. 17 



there are other kinds of dovetailing, and I present 
several of them below. 

In the figure shown at 17, the end view of a "lap 
dovetail" is represented, a style which is well known 
to every joiner who is familiar with drawer making. 
The method is the same 
as described as regards 
the sides, but the ends 
of the front are gauged 
on a certain distance, 
which should, if possi- 
ble, be the same as the 
thickness of the sides, 
and the dovetails are 
stopped at the gauge mark. The method of marking 
is the same as before, and the only difference is 
in cutting the "pin," which has to be done largely 
with the chisel, as the saw can only be used to start 

them with. 
iniuwiinui ij ^AiLm^ The appearance of the 
I [j \ fl "pins" when cut is shown in 
itolj M Imi Fig. 18, and tho-e who can 

do the ordinary dovetailing 
will have no difficulty in mak- 
ing the "lap" dovetail. 

In Fig. 19 is shown wnat 
is sometimes called "secret," 
but it IS really double lap 
dovetailing. One part is 
done as shown in the figure, making the mortises 
the same size as the pins, and cutting them as shown. 
The corresponding member is worked as in Fig. 
17, the necessary marking being done as in Fig. 13, 
and marking round point, then cutting them out with 




Fig 18 



28 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



saw and chisel. The appearance of this when done is 
shown in Fig. 20, which is the one marked A, at the 
side, and Fig. 21, on the top edges; and as will be 
readily understood, very careful work is necessary in 



'Secret Lap Dove tail irXQ 





Fig. 19 



Fig 20 



order to make a good job, and, presuming this, the 
joint is as strong as the ordinary dovetail. 

By mitering the top edges, as in Fig. 22, the 
appearance of this part is as Fig. 23, and if done 
properly is an improvement. It does not add much 
to the difficulty of making the joint. 

Secret dovetailing proper is a difficult job for any 
but an experienced man to undertake, but I will deal 





Fig. 21 



Fig. 22 



with it later on if space permits. It makes a good 
strong joint if done well, and the appearance is the 
same as a mitered joint. 

Sometimes the end of the drawers, as shown in Fig. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



29 



^^ 



?. 1 W J 



Fig. 23 



23, is rounded off as shown in Fig. 22, and when such 
is the case, the drawer projects from the face of the 
framework as shown by the dotted lines. 

In order to enable the workman to b<.tter under- 
stand the whole theory of dovetailing, I present here- 
with a couple of sketches 
which show how secret lap 
dovetailing maybe executed 
in several ways. Figs. 19 
and 24 show how the pins 
and mortises are laid out 

when the pins are simply no more than a square tenon. 
Secret lap dovetailing is used for a great variety of 
objects, such as sewing machine covers, instrument 
cases, etc. Where the dovetails require to be hidden 
it is not so important that the joint should be at an 
angle, as the corners can be rounded up to the joint. 
The difference between secret and plain lap dovetailing 
is that in the secret method the pins are shortened 

and the dovetails not 
cut through, as shown 
in Figs. 17 and 18, and 
when put together, in 
Fig. 22. 

Miter dovetailing. 
Figs. 25 and 26, is a 
much more intricate 
operation, and calls 
for greater care on the part of the workman. After 
carefully planing up the wood to a thickness, first 
gauge on the inside only the thickness of the lap on 
the end, remembering that the gauge for the lap will 
also be the gauge by which the ends of the pins and 
dovetails will be shortened, as shown in Fig. 27, where 




Fig. 24 



30 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



the dotted lines show the manner in which each piece 
must be rebated. After rebating, cut the pins, then 
mark the dovetails and chop them out, atter which 
proceed to miter the laps on both pieces and cut the 



Mttre Dovetailing 




Fig. 25 



Fig. 26 



miter across the edge, and, if neatly done, the joint 
will go together at the first trial. 

Bevel or splay dovetailing is much more difficult 
than any of the preceding, and is not so generally 
known. The required bevel being given, proceed as 
follows: First joint the ends to the required bevel, 
then, without changing the angle, joint the 
bottom edge to the same bevel as the ends, 
working from the inside. Now comes the 
most important part of the operation. The 
ends must be beveled on the thickness of' 
the wood. This is obtained by laying the 
blade of the square on the beveled bottom 
edge, then shooting the ends to the square, 
Fig 27 working still from the inside of the wood. 
If this part is omitted, the result will be 
that when the job is put together it will be not only 
open on the inside but will not be level on the out- 
side — more or less, according to the angle of the 
sides. Gauge on the thickness of the wood as for 




HARDWOOD FINISHER 31 

plain dovetailing. In cutting the pins, a center line 
through these should be parallel with the bevel of the 
bottom edge as shown in Fig. 28, and not cut square 
to the inside of the job as in plain dovetailing. If 
this be neglected, and the angle is much, the dove- 
tails will be cut across the grain, and have no strength. 
After marking the pin with a marking point, before 
cutting the dovetails, mark them across the ends also, 
parallel to the bevel of the bottom edge as in Fig. 29, 

Bevet RovA fatting 





Fig. 28 Fig. 29 

and cut accordingly. I would strongly advise the 
workman who has never made a bevel dovetail to try 
it upon two pieces of wood, as more will be learned 
from a little practice when the difficulties have to be 
surmounted than from any amount of study. 

The illustrations shown in Figs. 30 and 31 will 
convey to the reader a better idea of lap and miter 
dovetail than the previous ones. Fig. 30 shows the 
finished corner, the face of the work being shown at 
F. This may be rounded off if it is so desired. Fig. 
31 shows a corner all ready to be driven together, 
which will have a mitered lap. AA shows both front 
and side; the shaded laj>s show the miters. 

Another style of bevel dovetailing is shown in Fig. 
32, where the pins are at right angles with the line oi 



32 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



slope as shown at AA and BB. This style of dove- 
tailing is well adapted for trays, hoppers and similar 
work. All stuff intended to be used in bevel or 
splayed work, that is to be dovetailed, must be pre- 
pared with butt joints before the dovetails are laid out. 
Joints of this kind may be made common, lapped or 





Fig. 30 



Fig. 31 



mitered. In making the latter, much skill and labor 
will be required. 

In making veneered doors there are a number of 
different methods practiced by workmen, but it is not 
in the province of this work to describe them all, or 
indeed, any of them at great length, but when a 
number of veneered doors are to be made at one time, 
the following method, which is adopted in some large 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



33 



factories, may offer some suggestions iK^t may be 
found useful: 

The first operation is to take common coarse white 
pine boards, with sound knots, and which have been 
well kiln-dried, the stock used being generally i6 feet 
long, IXI2 inches, and surface it on both sides by a 
Daniels planer without regard to thickness. Some 
boards are thinner than others, while others are 
warped in drying, and the thickness of the boards is 




Fig. 32 



immaterial, perfectly seamed surfaces only being 
necessary. After the stock is planed it is cut into 
such lengths as the bill of doors calls for. They are 
ready now to be glued up. The face board, of what- 
ever hardwood is to be used, is planed generally to % 
inch thick, and is also run through a Daniels planer. 
The stock is now ready to go to the gluing press, and 
as the Daniels planer makes the best gluing surface in 
the world, no scratch planing is needed. After 
properly heating in a box the stock is brought out and 
carefully glued, the hardwood face parts being marked 
for it. From three to five parts are put in the press at 



34 THE UP-TO-DATE 

one time, and a pressure of 20 tons, brought down b>' 
screws, is put upon these parts. After remaining in 
the press the proper time they are taken out, and 
generally remain several days before being worked up, 
which gives the glue plenty of time to harden. When 
ready to work again these parts are taken to a Daniels 
planer and squared up, after which the parts are taken 
to a very nice cutting table or bench saw, and are 
cut up to sizes required, leaving them }i inch large 
for future dressing. It is a positive necessity that the 
saw cuts free and clear, as heating has a tendency to 
warp the stock or spring it slightly, which would make 
it necessary to dress the stuff again. If the saw does 
not heat, the stiles come out perfectly straight, and 
these stiles can be laid on a Daniels planer bed and a 
light shaving taken off. They are now straight, and 
if the saw table is in good condition, square; the other 
side may be finished with pony planer or with a Daniels. 
A Daniels is preferred, because it makes a better gluing 
surface. The work is now ready for the veneering, 
the thickness of which is immaterial, as it may vary 
from the thickness of thin paper to }( inch. Heated 
cauls are now used for the veneer, and the stiles, if 
heated at all, are just warmed and the veneer glued on 
by piling up with a hot caul between each stile. The 
old-fashioned way of making veneered doors may do 
very well when only two or three doors are to be made, 
but in these days of sharp competition, manufacturers 
are obliged to adopt the quickest methods compatible 
with efficiency and good finish. 

The doors or other work — for this method will apply 
to wainscot or any similar work — should be placed in a 
dry room for a day or two, when they may be finished 
up and made ready for the polisher or varnisher. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



35 



If first-class doors are required, it is always better to 
build up the stuff for the stiles and rails, and glue 
them together before they are veneered. A white 
pine door is about the only door that can be made 
successfully from solid wood. In a house with, say, a 
dozen doors, what other wood is there that will abso- 
lutely hold its place during 
a reasonable period? Cer- 
tainly yellow pine will not 
do it. A solid oak door is 
a pest, and should not be 
put in a house except un- 
der written instructions. 
Sycamore cannot be used 
solid, and certainly neither 
gum nor maple. Possibly 
walnut or butternut might, 
but who would think of 
using them under present 
conditions? 

The door shown in Fig. 
33 is an illustration of one 
of the most serviceable 
doors made. The section j 
of stile shown in Fig. 34 
will give an idea of the 

manner in which the stiles and rails are built up; the 
veneer showing on the outside, also the panel. 

Work of this kind may be used outside as well as 
for inside, and no one need fear unpainted white pine 
or oak for outside work. There is in Europe abundance 
of woodwork, exterior and interior, that has not been 
tickled by a brush in over five hundred years. All the 
native Swiss cottages are unpainted on the exteriot. 



Fig. 33 



36 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



All of the half-timber houses of France, no matter 
how richly decorated by the great artists of the chisel, 
are unpainted, and we have known of work in white pine 
and quartered white oak without the use of paint which 
has been in existence for centuries untouched by paint, 
and time justified the experiment. Nothing is more 
beautiful than the natural grain of the wood and its 
natural weathering under a proper transparent finish. 
It takes some courage to organize and push through 
an innovation of this kind, and one is beset 
by many warnings, but the beautiful result 
justifies the effort. 

The following method of making veneered 
doors was described by H. T. Gates in 'The 
Woodworker" some time ago. It will doubt- 
less be found of much benefit to workmen 
employed in factories where veneered doors 
are made in quantities. The hints and sug- 
gestions are to the point, and the instruc- 
tions are clear and may be readily under- 
stood. The subject of veneered doors is 
one that has often been discussed of late 
and much light on it has been thrown, yet it will 
not suffer, if the subject is again brought forward, 
masmuch as the various factories have particular ways 
of their own of producing this rapidly growing popu- 
larity in the door line. Instead of trying to lay down 
any fixed rule, saying thus and so shall they be made, 
let us consider some of the essential points which may 
^e adapted to suit each condition as the manufacturer 
finds it. 

I. Equipment. — Aside from the usual door-making 
machinery, this consists of larger facilities for preparing 
and applying glue, veneer press, resaw for veneers and 




Fig. 34 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



3T 




Fig. 35 



panels (unless they are purchased from a dealer in 
veneers), a warm room where the glue may be applied 
and material gotten ready for the press. Unless the 
factory is already supplied with a large kettle for 
preparing glue, it will be found of advan- 
tage to make a large copper kettle that 
will fit the holes in the heater, but large 
enough to hold three or four ordinary- 
sized kettles of liquid glue. This can be 
done by making it higher and wider about 
the flange, as shown in Fig. 35. In this 
way sufficient glue may be made ready for a good-sized 
batch of doors without fear of running out. 

Of course, these remarks do not apply to the factory 
having modern glue-spreaders, hand or power-feed, 
which are very essential in strictly veneer establish- 
ments. Our remarks apply only to the shop where 
veneered doors are one of the many by-products, so 
to speak, which accompany the usual line of mill 
work. 

For spreading the glue by hand, procure a 4-inch flat 
wall brush and prepare it by pouring alcohol gum- 
shellac into the roots of the bristles, and driving blind 
staples into the butt end, as close 
together as possible, thus preventing 
the bristles from coming out. Have 
a pair of "horses" about 3 feet high, 
strongly made, and having an angular 
piece on the top, to prevent waste of 
the glue, and squeezing it off the work 
at the bearing point — see Fig. 36. 
Make the veneer press wide enough between the 
uprights to. permit of veneering a table top or wide 
panel if needed, and have two rows of screws, so that 




Fig. 36 



38 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



two stacks of cores may be pressed at one time. A 
strong press can be made with 6x6-inch maple 
cross-pieces and ^-inch round iron rods, with jambnuts 
to hold the upper piece in place, having regular 

veneer press screws at 



6x6 Mapfe 

— nor 



BedL^- 



5crews^\ 



A 



Cores 



^ 



TDT 



6x6 Maple 



^ - 'Tin CwA 



£fid \/iew 

Fig. 37 



TUT 



least \yk inches diam- 
eter. The bedpiece 
should be lagged up and 
trued, so that it will be 
straight and out of 
wind. To prevent the 
work from sticking to 
•the bed, it should be 
covered on the top with 
zinc or tin — see Fig. 37. 
For resawing veneers 
and panels, where there 
is no band resaw, a 
gauge (Fig. 38) and pressure roller (Fig. 39) used on 
the band saw table, and i>^-inch saw in proper trim, 
with right management should turn three or four 
veneers out of inch stock, which may be applied direct 
to the coring without dressing, as described later on. 

To do a good job of gluing to advantage it is 
necessary to have a warm 
room, so that a large batch 
of material may be worked 
at one time. There are va- 
rious other purposes to which 
this room may be put, but 
to make a veneered door properly, without waste 
material or lost time, a warming room is very essen- 
tial. First, the parts of wood to be glued must be 
thoroughly warm; also the temperature of the room 




Fig. 38 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



19 



where the work is to be done must be such as not to 
chill the glue and hinder its spreading and making 
good joints. 




Pressure 



^TableTop 



Fig. 39 



It is taken for 
granted that our fac- 
tory has a hand jointer, 
pony planer, mortiser, 
tenoner, sticker, door 
clamp and drum Sand- 
er. It is a question whether veneered doors can be 
profitably made without the few essentials here enumer- 
ated, and where they are made in quantities, special 
machinery for spreading glue, cutting mouldings, 
presses, clamps, panel-raisers, etc., will be needed. 

II. Materials. — Dry coring is the first thing that is 
required to make good doors. It is usual to cut up the 
material and put it in the dry (or warm) room referred 
to above, or in a dry-kiln, properly stacked, and leave 
it there as long as possible to drive out every par- 
ticle of dampness. All waste material of suitable, 
size and too poor to be used for any other pur- 
pose may be used for coring. It is preferable to 
have the strips wide enough so that when 
^San^ glued up they may be split through the 
Cut center to make two stiles or rails — see 
Fig. 40 — thereby saving much labor in 
gluing, which item cuts quite a figure in 
veneered door work. The stock sawyer 
can lay aside such material from time to time and have 
it stored as mentioned, so that there is a supply of 
dry stuff to draw on when a batch of doors is wanted. 
The glue for coring need not be of high grade, and 
where quick preparation is desired, a ground or 
pulverized bone glue will answer the purpose admi- 



FiG. 40 



40 THE UP-TO-DATE 

rably. The men soon become accustomed to handling 
the glue and it needs no soaking, as the flake or 
noodle glue does. For veneering a medium grade of 
hide-stock glue is to be preferred; one that is free from 
acid, clear in color, and not too quick-setting. It will 
pay to follow up the glue question more closely than 
we usually have done to obtain good results with 
economy. The glue for veneering does not want to 
be too thick. Practice in the work makes the work- 
man proficient in its preparation. It should flow freely 
from the brush without being "tacky," as the painter 
would say. 

The veneers and panels should be cut up and 
resawed before they are kiln-dried. The ends should 
be glue-sized, and they should be stacked straight and 
even in the kiln. Those who have tried resawing kiln- 
dried hardwoods, are aware of what a sorry job it 
makes; and how the veneers buckle, spring out of 
shape, pinch the saw or make it run crooked. When 
the saw has not too much set, the veneers may be 
glued onto the cores without planing, provided the 
sawing is a good, smooth job. Care must be taken 
in dressing veneers or panels, not to chip them out, as 
that is ruinous in this class of work. 

III. Construction. — The man who is doing this 
work needs to be familiar with the work and its 
methods to do it well and economically. Filling the 
doors is the first work towards the desired end. A 
list of the size, style, thickness of doors and kinds of 
wood should be on each working bill, and follow the 
material in its progress out of chaos into stiles, rails, 
panels and finally the finished product. This bill 
should include the edge strips, the width, length and 
thickness of each bundle of cores, the finished size of 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 41 

the parts they are intended to make, and the number 
and both the sawing and finished size of veneers and 
panels. 

After the sawyer has the material cut, and it is 
thoroughly dry, the one who does the gluing assembles 
the cores, puts them on the heating coil and prepares 
his core glue; the pieces are spread on the horses and 
given a coating of glue, assembled in batches, and put 
into the press, the surplus glue being squeezed out by 
this process, which includes putting the edge strips 
on each stile requiring one. 

After they have been allowed to set sufficiently, 
they are taken to the jointer and the straightest side 
trued up. If they are built-up for making two pieces, 
they are resawed and again jointed and thickened to 
desired size on the pony planer. 

They are now ready for veneering. They are again 
put in the warm room over the coils; when warm, 
they are put on the horses as before, and spread with 
glue on both sides; a bottom board is first laid and 
then the veneers and cores stacked in regular order. 
The veneers must previously be carefully looked over, 
poor ones culled out, and any pin holes, porous spots 
or checks covered by gluing a piece of paper over, to 
prevent two stiles from being stuck together by glue 
oozing through such spots. They are again pressed 
out, and when dry, trued and sized to width. They 
are now ready to be laid out, same as any blind-tenon 
door. 

The framing must be done in a first-class manner, 
with true joints and tight tenons. In fact, all machine 
work on veneered doors must be carefully done to 
have true work and tight joints. 

Instead of putting the panels in when the doors are 



42 THE UP-TO-DATE 

put in the clamps, the framework is glued together 
with open panels, the stiles and rails being grooved, 
and after the doors are polished and put on the 
finishing bench, a panel strip is put in all around the 
edge of each panel, to which the panel mould is glued 
and nailed. The moulding is put in one side first, 

panels laid in, and moulded the 



^^m 



^» 



other side, as shown in Fig. 41. 
This arrangement prevents the 
Pj^ ^j moulding from pulling away 

from the stiles, should the pan- 
els shrink, and allows enough play for the panels to 
keep, straight with the natural working of the wood 
in the changes of the atmosphere. There is advantage, 
too, in gluing up the framework without the panels. 
This cannot be done in the case of solid moulded doors. 

The finish of a veneered door should be first-class; 
the panels, moulds and framework well sandpapered, 
and flat surfaces scraped smooth, as every defect seems 
magnified when the filler and varnish are applied. 

Special care should be taken not to scrape, scratch 
or mar the face of the doors in shipping. Many a 
good door has been injured by careless packing or 
handling in shipping, after the cabinetmaker has 
finished his job. They should be crated, if shipped 
on a railroad or by boat, or they will not be worth 
much on arrival at their destination. 

Wedged Doors. — The day of the wedged door has 
passed, and all modern-built houses contain what is 
known to the trade as "blind-tenon doors." The 
"dowel" door is practically a blind-tenon door. In 
plants where a set of dowel door machinery has not 
been installed, the problem of making these doors 
presents itself. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 43 

The advantages of this door are the saving of lumber 
on the rails, of time in laying out all stiles both sides 
and mortising them from both sides, the neat appear- 
ance of the stiles, especially on natural-finished work, 
and the ease with which they may be glued together. 

Several points must be kept in mind in order to 
secure success. Let the stock sawyer cut all rails 




Fig. 42 

exact, so the tenon will not touch the bottom of 
mortise before the shoulder is tight at the coping 
The tenons should fit more snugly both sides and 
endways than in the old way, to hold well and make 
tight joints on the muntins. The glue should be 
applied to the mortise in such a way that it reaches 
the tenon, as well as the shoulders of rails and stiles, 
to make a strong job of the gluing. 

The cleaning out of chips from the mortise has been 
a difficult problem, and it is not yet solved satis- 
factorily. Chain-saw mortises obviate this, but they 
have their faults, too. The "lip" chisels. Fig. 42, 
clear out the loose chips, but leave the fine chips that 
are pounded down by the action of the chisel, to be 
removed. In order to do this, a long S-shaped chisel 
with large wooden handle. Fig. 43, is used. The 
blade is i^f-inch wide, and tapers from o at the cutting 
edge to yi or ^-inch at the handle. 

This is a slow, laborious job. An easier method is 



44 THE UP- TO -DATE 

to use a twist drill bit in a horizontal boring machine, 
leaving the arbor in a fixed position and moving the 
stiles back and forth, both lengthwise and sidewise, 
by hand. The bit should not be quite as large as the 
mortise, so as not to enlarge it and make the tenons fit 



Fig. 43 

too loosely. Straight-flute bits, double-pointed bits, 
flat pieces of steel sharpened on edges and points, and 
various other patterns of cutters have been tried, and 
drills give the best satisfaction; only, they are easily 
broken. 

The doors should be framed and stood in a hot room 
for about a week, to dry out. When ready to glue 
together, they are warm and do not chill the glue as it 
is applied. The kind of glue has much to do with the 
rapidity with which doors may be glued up. Expen- 
sive glue is not required for this work, but a strong, 
quick-setting glue is needed, so that the doors do not 
have to remain too long in the clamp, thus retarding 
the work. A light-colored glue, having had a sufficient 
quantity of oxide of zinc mixed with it by the glue 
manufacturer, is the kind required. Using this, the 
man at the door clamp can take them out of the 
clamps about as fast as he can properly apply the glue, 
without their springing apart at the joints so as to 
require small clamps to hold them. 

Bear in mind, in making blind-tenon doors, you 
must have good machine work, dry lumber, snug fit 
to tenons, quick-setting glue, all applied in a good, 
sensible manner. The kinds of wood and styles of 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



45 



doors both affect the results obtained, and must be 
made the subject of study in order to succeed. 

A good tool for rubbing out the surplus glue after 
the veneering has been put in place is shown in Fig. 
44. The rubbing part may be made out of an old plane 
iron, or from a worn-out scraper. 




THE CHOICE AND USE OF GLUE 

Glue is an article which plays an important part in 
carpentry. It is therefore to the interest of all to know 
how to choose a 
good article, and 
also how to use it 
properly for vari- 
ous kinds of work. 

First, as to how 
to recognize a good 
article. It is really 
useless to recom- 
mend Russian, Scotch, French, etc., as there are good 
and bad qualities of each, and we make as good glue 
in this country as anywhere in the world. Neither 
does the test of looking through the cakes at the 
light, and choosing those of only a bright color, 
apply in all cases, although it is a fairly good test 
with thin glue, that is, glue which is sold in thin 
cakes. The best test which the writer has found is 
to break a cake into two or three pieces, either by 
forcibly bending it, or by striking with the hammer. 
If the fractures present a smooth, even surface, the glue 
is poor in quality; but if, on the contrary, they pre- 
sent a ragged appearance, leaving any amount of 
sharp splinters, it is evidence of good quality, and may 



46 THE UP-TO-DATE 

be depended upon. The latter is to be preferred, as 
being best able to stand the damp weather without 
going mouldy and perishing. 

The best way to prepare glue for use is to break up 
sufficient to fill the inner vessel of the glue pot into 
small pieces, and fill the vessel with water. After 
soaking a few hours, the outer vessel can be filled with 
water, and allowed to boil. When this takes place, 
give the contents of the inner vessel a good stir 
occasionally until all is melted, when the glue should 
run off the brush freely, and be almost as thin to all 
appearances as good linseed oil. 

In glueing up joints of any descilption, or in repair- 
ing furniture, the great object is to get the wood into 
as close contact as possible before the glue begins to 
set; and the best way to manage this is to put on plenty 
of glue, boiling hot, and by means of pressure or by 
rubbing the parts together, to rub out as much as 
possible. The general idea is that a certain amount of 
glue must be left in a joint, and that it will hold best 
if it is reasonably thick. Greater mistakes were never 
made. The thinner the better, and the less left in the 
stronger the joint will be; therefore it follows that 
unless the parts to be joined fit closely together, a 
strong joint is impossible. 

The glue pot must be kept free from dust and damp, 
as glue which goes mouldy, or gets mixed with foreign 
matter, is useless; therefore, unless it is used fairly 
often, only a moderate quantity should be made at 
one time. 

The outer or water vessel of the glue pot should be 
large, so as to be capable of holding enough water to 
keep the glue hot long enough for any reasonable job. 
A small water vessel is a continual nuisance, owing to 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 47 

its continually boiling dry when making glue, and 
failing to hold the heat when using it. Therefore, 
when purchasing, do not get one which holds less than 
a quart of water at the least. The extra cost will be 
saved in a very short time. 

For large establishments where much glue is 
required, special appliances are provided, and may be 
obtained from most dealers in plumbers' goods. 

For glue to be properly effective it requires to 
penetrate the pores of the wood, and the more a body 
of glue penetrates the wood, the more substantial the 
joint will remain. Glues that take the longest to dry 
are to be preferred to those that dry quickly, the slow- 
drying glues being always the strongest, other things 
being equal. For general use no method gives such 
good results as the following: Break the glue up 
small, put into an iron kettle, cover the glue with 
water and allow it to soak twelve hours; after soaking, 
boil until done. Then pour it into an airtight box, 
leave the cover off till cold, then cover up tight. As 
glue is required, cut out a portion and melt in the usual 
way. Expose no more of the made glue to the 
atmosphere for any length of time than is necessary, 
as the atmosphere is very destructive to made glue. 
Never heat made glue in a pot that is subjected to the 
direct heat of the fire or a lamp. All such methods of 
heating glue cannot be condemned in terms too severe. 
Do not use thick glue for joints or veneering. In all 
cases work it well into the wood, in a similar manner 
to what painters do with paint. Glue both surfaces of 
your work, excepting in case of veneering. Never 
glue upon hot wood, as the hot wood will absorb all 
the water in the glue too suddenly, and leave only a 
very little residue, with no adhesive power in it. 



48 THE UP-TO-DATE 

REMARKS ON VENEERING 

A wood suitable for veneering requires to be 
thoroughly well seasoned, free from knots and shakes, 
and should not contain turps. The best of woods for 
the purpose are mahogany and American walnut, 
although good pine answers well for ordinary purposes. 
The surface, if flat, is carefully planed with the 
trying plane. It is then well toothed over with the 
toothing plane — first the lengthways of the wood and 
afterward the crossways — care being taken to tooth 
the work thoroughly. If you are working pine, use a 
coarse toothing iron; if mahogany or other hardwood, 
a finer iron is requisite. If the wood presents a 
hollow or rounded surface, it is shaped with suitable 
planes, rasps and files, and finally well prepared cross- 
ways with coarse glass paper such as strong No. 2 or 
No. 2}i. 

The next preparation is sizing. To make the size, 
take one part of good glue and boil it well with 50 
parts of water; then brush over the ground-work while 
hot; allow to dry, and, if there should be any defects 
in the ground-work, fill in with stopping. Make your 
stopping by mixing some finely ground plaster of Paris 
with hot glue and water, enough to form a moderately 
stiff paste. Then lay in where necessary with a chisel, 
taking care to allow for shrinkage; let it dry, then 
level off with a rasp. 

Having sized the ground-work over, next proceed to 
the preparation of the veneer while it is drying. 
Look carefully to the wood before cutting it, and see 
that it is done in such a manner as to get the grain of 
it to the best advantage. Cut it rather larger than the 
surface it is intended to veneer, to allow for leveling 
at the ends and sides. Most veneers, such as mahog- 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 49 

any, oak, chestnut, maple, sycamore, birch, satinwood 
and various other woods, are ready for cutting as 
received from the merchant; but some., like burr 
walnut, brown oak, Amboyna, etc., present an uneven 
surface, called "backly. " When this is the case, 
damp one side with clear water, lay it down with its 
dry side upward, and put the wet side of the next 
veneer upon it, repeating the operation till all are 
done. Take particular care to keep each veneer, if 
there are more than three or four, in its proper order 
as you damp and turn over, and do not on any account 
get them mixed. Let the wood stand about four or 
five hours, then lay them out to allow to nearly dry 
and they will be ready for cutting out. 

The next process is flatting. Get two pieces of 
wood (dry, straight pine will answer), rather longer 
than the veneer, and heat them on a stove or before a 
bright fire; then place the veneer together between the 
hand screw, and allow it to remain for about half an 
hour; repeat this operation until the veneer is perfectly 
dry and thoroughly flat. 

Our wood is now ready for filling in. If it is per- 
fectly sound this operation is, of course, unnecessary; 
but it frequently happens, especially with burr walnut, 
that it contains holes that require filling. To do this, 
take a piece of the veneer (off the edges of that 
already cut out), and flat it precisely as the other. 
Select the part of it which matches best with the grain 
of the wood around the hole to be filled in. Place this 
underneath the hole. If you have a stamp rather 
larger than the hole, you may now cut it square or 
circular and the piece for filling it at the same time. 
If not, take an ordinary pocket knife having a sharp 
point and cut your hole and veneer the required shape. 



50 THE UP-TO-DATE 

When you have filled in the wood, lay it on a flat 
board, then press the piece in with a hammer. If 
they are rather large use one or two finely pointed 
tacks to keep them in position. Now cover all the 
pieces with strips of paper, selecting a strong paper 
such as copy book or note paper for the purpose — one 
that is not too thick — and glue it on one side. Take 
care to use glue just thick enough to hold the wood in 
position. Pay particular attention to this, or it will 
cause a good deal of trouble. You will find it best to 
cut the paper in strips about i^ to i>^ inches wide. 
Lay it on a board to glue and smooth it over your 
veneer with a damp rag. 

Jointing. — We now procee' to jointing. Place the 
veneer in the position it will appear when laid. 
Observe that it matches. If you are to have one joint 
with two veneers or two joints with four veneers, see 
that the grain of the wood forms a figure having both 
sides alike. If the veneers have b en kept in their 
right or following order, this will not be difficult. If 
you are working a thick veneer (saw cut), make the 
joints with an iron plane or ordinary trying plane on 
the shooting board; if using thin veneer (knife cut), 
make them with a chisel and straight-edge. Take 
particular care to have the bevel edge of the chisel 
against the straight-edge when cutting or it will run, 
and you may come off with an ugly cut. Now put the 
jointed edges together on a deal board, and tack one 
edge down; put the tacks about ^ inch from the 
jointed edges and about 2}^ inches apart. Having 
tacked one piece down, put the other up to it and tack 
it in the same manner. Now cover all the joints with 
paper, glue together in the same manner as prtv 
viously mentioned in fhe filling in; smooth it well down 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 51 

with a damp rag and allow to dry. If the weather is 
hot it is best to cover your joints to prevent them 
drying too quickly. A good and simple method is to 
lay your board with the veneer downward on the floor. 
Let the joints dry, then take out the tacks and knock 
the head holes in with a hammer from the underneath 
side. Put the veneer aside until you are ready for 
laying it. It is best to cover it up and keep the air 
from it by placing it under a board or wrapper. 

There are two ways of laying veneer — by means of a 
caul or a veneering hammer. I shall describe both 
methods, although the first is of greater importance, 
and should, whenever practicable, be adopted, but in 
certain cases which I shall mention the second is 
extremely useful. 

Veneering by Caul. — First make a caul, then take a 
piece of well-seasoned cedar or pine, rather larger than 
the surface intended to cover (about i inch to i^ 
inches each way), and plane it up true on both sides, 
if the work is flat. If otherwise, make it to the 
requisite shape to fit the work, hollow, round, or 
whatever it may be. If it is necessary to shape the 
caul, use thicker stuff, and it is advisable to screw on 
two or three battens on the back. When making 
shaped cauls it is best at the same time to get out the 
pieces of wood necessary to form a flat surface when 
the wood is put in the caul. Thus, suppose we wanted 
to veneer a door having a rounded surface on one 
side and a hollow one on the other. We have made 
a hollow caul to correspond with the rounded surface 
having its under side flat. Now put the rounded side 
of the door in the caul and shape your piece of wood, 
rounding it to fit the hollow side. They should be 2 
inches wide — the same width or a little larger than the 



52 THE UP-TO-DATE 

caul, and 5 inches or 6 inches apart. If one side only 
of tne wood is shaped these woods are unnecessary. 
If the wood is not wide enough, make a good joint, 
dowel it together, and take it to pieces for heating. 
The caul, if likely to be much in use, should be 
covered with zinc. Cut the metal out large enough 
to cover the face of it, with sufficient to turn over the 
edges and ends, and fasten it on with flat-headed zinc 
or copper nails. 

Numerous failures in unaccustomed hands may be 
ascribed to bad glue. Nothing but the very best glue 
should be used for veneering. Get the very best 
glue you can, break it up and boil thoroughly. It 
differs so much in strength that the proportion of 
water cannot be given, but after breaking up in pieces 
just cover with water and allow it to soak; then boil 
off with frequent stirring. It will, if good, now 
require about half as much water as previously added 
to bring it to the right consistence for veneering. It 
should be spread evenly with the brush and be free 
from lumps. Having made the caul and prepared the 
glue, get the hand screws and cramps to commence 
laying. Heat the caul on a stove or before a bright 
fire. If it is to be doweled together, and if it is more 
convenient, take it to pieces, taking care to mark your 
joints first. If you intend laying two similar pieces of 
veneer on flat surfaces, heat both sides of it and do both 
pieces together. If not, get one side of it well heated, 
as hot as you can without letting it burn. While it is 
heating, set the hand screws and cramps open as near 
the distance as you will require them, and place handy 
for the work. Now glue the ground-work well, and 
if tfie veneer shows any signs of being backly glue it 
slightly on the underneath side, as this will help tc 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 53 

soften it. Having finished gluing, put the veneer on 
the work and smooth it over gently with the hand. 
Then see that the caul is hot enough, and that its 
surface is free from any small cinders or dirt. Now 
rub it over with a greasy rag, and lay it gently on your 
veneer. Draw the work and caul a little over the edge 
of the bench, just enough to get the hand screw on; 
put it on very gently, then tighten as much as 
possible. You can then stand it upon the floor, and if 
you have nobody to hold it for you rest the hand screw 
against the bench while you put on the remainder. 
They should be placed about 6 inches apart, and mind 
that they bite fairly. Do not get any screws tighter 
than the other, or you will only get the pressure at the 
outside and inside of the cramps. If you have a piece 
of work so wide that the screws will not reach the 
center from either side or the ends, get two pieces of 
wood 2 inches or 2^ inches thick and about the same 
thickness, plane them up, slightly rounding on one 
side, put their rounding sides facing each other on the 
work, and hand screw them at each end; they will 
then tighten in the middle and give sufficient pressure. 
Let the caul remain on for nearly an hour (in very hot 
weather longer will not hurt), then undo the hand 
screws, and if the caul sticks, insert the edge of a thin 
metal square, the back of a hand saw, or anything of 
a similar nature, between it and the veneer, and work 
it carefully about until you get them apart. If the 
glue has been used thick enough and the caul well 
greased, there will not be very much trouble, and they 
will often come apart themselves, or by giving the end 
of the caul a tap with the hammer, or on the end of the 
bench. See that the veneer is down. Feel it all over 
with the hand. If it is up you will be able to tell bv 



54 THE UP-TO-DATE 

the hollow sound on tapping it with the tip of your 
finger, as well as by the raised appearance called blisters 
it will present when held to the light. If you heat 
your caul sufficiently, use the glue thick enough, and 
put the hand screws on properly, you will not be 
troubled with blisters. Should, however, there be 
any, let the work stand for one or two hours, and then 
put a smaller hot caul on when required until well 
down all over. 

To level the veneer, first lay it (veneer downward) 
on a board and scrape off with a chisel as much of the 
glue that has come over the edges as you can. Now 
put it on the bench screw, and level toward you, with 
the paring chisel if thin veneers; if thick, use a 
smoothing plane. Put it aside to dry. If you have 
two pieces of the same size put them with their veneer 
.sides together; if only one, place it .so that the air 
does not get to the veneer; allow to stand for two or 
three days, then scrape off the paper for filling in 
pieces and jointing with a chisel, having previously 
damped it with hot water. The work is now ready for 
sizing. This operation may be dispensed with, but it 
is decidedly advantageous, especially if working wood 
which has an open grain. The size, which should be 
about the same strength as that used for the ground- 
work, is brushed or rubbed over the veneer with the 
hand, then wiped off as dry as possible with a cloth. 

As has already been mentioned, this method is useful 
in certain cases. We sometimes want to veneer an 
edge, to put a narrow slip of veneer on some small 
surface where it would be very inconvenient to caul it 
down. If you are working a wood of a glossy or 
greasy description, like satinwood or rosewood, its 
nature will not admit of sufficient pressure by this 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



55 



process, nor should it ever be adopted for work 
where water will act injuriously. I believe the pre- 
vailing opinion is that veneer requires a good deal of 
water to make it lie. In the first process, you will 
remember that it is laid quite dry. In the second 
process water is used, and if we consider that a damp 
surface tends to cause the wood to cast as it dries, we 
can readily understand where it should be used. 

Veneering Round and Tapering Columns. — Occasions 
often arise where it is desirable to veneer columns of 
varying size and shape, and just how to do the work 
to the best advantage is a question not always readily 
determined by the workman. 
In commenting upon this 
matter a well-known author- 
ity offers the following sug- 
gestions concerning tapering r— 
columns: 

"The success of this work 
depends entirely on the 
proper cauls. The spong- 
ing and gluing is the same as the work previously men- 
tioned. Take a circular column 3 or 4 inches in diameter, 
the core to be made of any suitable material. Pass a 
piece of paper around the core and make a straight 
joint through the center and we have the exact size of 
the veneer. A caul of tin with a cleat on each end for 
the purchase of the hand screws is to be made as in Fig. 
45, leaving the top open for an inch or more to give the 
glue a chance to escape. Apply the glue to the core and 
pass the veneer around it, not forgetting, however, to 
sponge the veneer before doing so. After screwing 
together, put the whole in the steam box to warm up the 
stiffened glue. After the work has become thoroughly 




Fig. 45 



S6 



THE UP-TO-DATE 




warm, take it out and give the hand screws a few turns, 
then lay it aside until the glue is set. Take off the 
hand screws and dispense with the tin cauls. The 

ends may then be 
brought together, as 
shown in Fig. 46, only 
the caul on the joint is 
to be heated. 

"Fig. 47 is a tapering 
column. The work is 
the same as above de- 
scribed, only the shape 
of the veneer is differ- 
ent, which may be got 
either by passing paper 
around, trimming on both ends and making a straight 
joint in center of column, or by laying out the diagram, 
as in Fig. 48. In explanation thereof, let A, B, C, D 
represent the column 
in question. To find 
the shape of a veneer 
to pass around this 
column extend AB 
and CD to E. With 
the radius EC and 
ED, describe the arcs| 
CF and OH, which 
will be the required 
shape, and the dis- 
tance AF and IH will 
pass half-way around, 

and the veneer requires to be cut as large again to 
pass all around the column. Under no circumstances 
make more than one joint. By following the instruc- 




HARDWOOD FINISHER 



if 




Fig. 48 



}t THE UP-TO-DATE 

tion herein given any fair mechanic will be enabled to 
execute a creditable piece of work." 

In veneering small work, such as picture frames, 
clock stands or similar work, cauls should be reverse 
of the moulding or face of the work to be veneered, 
and the top of caul, when laid on the moulding, should 
be parallel with the under side of the work, so that 
caul and work can be gripped firmly with hand screws, 
when the veneer is being glued in place. 

The section shown in Fig. 49 is known in the trade 
as a plain chamfer, and Fig. 50 shows a method by 
which such a frame maybe veneered 
without taking it to pieces. Veneer 
}i inch thick can only be laid with 
cauls; and a suitable one is shown, 
and also the method of fixing it. 
v/0y^oi^ The dotted outline of the caul is 
shown in section in Fig. 49, with the 
Fig. 49 veneer between it and the base. If 

the frames are polished, remove 
the polish carefully with a sharp scraper; avoid work- 
ing the surface into holes, but leave it rough from the 
scraper. Cut the veneer to a width that will allow 
sufficient margin for beveling, as shown in Fig. 49, 
and tooth or scratch the under face with a saw. Joint 
the inside edge to a correct bevel, cut to a miter and 
joint the ends in a miter joint, bedding the veneer 
either on a piece of the moulding or on a waste piece 
chamfered to the same angle; this is to obtain a vertical 
face to the miter. Next prepare the caul (as shown 
in Fig. 49) out of a piece of deal. The caul should be 
i^inch shorter than the veneer, and mitered at each 
end; not cut square as shown in Fig. 50; which is 
drawn thus for clearness. Make the caul slightly 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



59 



round in length and beveled, so that the two surfaces 
marked AB (Fig. 49) are parallel. Well glue the 
veneer and the frame, lay the veneer in the proper 
position, place a strip of paper on the surface of the 
veneer, and lay the caul (preferably hot) upon this 
paper and fix with hand screws as shown, the more 
screws the better. Take care that the inside edge of 




Fig. 50 

the veneer is flush with the edges of the frame. Pro- 
ceed to fix the opposite side in like manner; then 
wipe off the superfluous glue with a rag dipped in hot 
water, and wash the miters clean; then fit in the two 
end pieces, which can be fixed in the manner described 
for the sides. Allow twelve hours to dry, then clean 
off the back edges and scrape up the faces. 



MAKING READY FOR POLISHING 

If the workman who finally finishes woodwork had 
the selection of the materials out of which the work 



6o THE UP-TO-DATE 

is formed, and wrought the work himself, the follow- 
ing suggestions would scarcely be required, for he 
would see to it that the material was free from shakes, 
cracks, worm holes, doze, sap and fractures; and he 
would so choose his material that the full beauty of 
the grain would show, when the polish coat went on. 
He would also see that the work was clean; that is, 
that no plane marks were visible, no rough spots or 
cross-grains noticeable, and that all angles were sharp 
and definite, all mouldings smooth and not a nail head 
or screw top to be seen, nor any point that could 
suggest a nail head. As a rule, however, the work- 
man who puts on the last finishing touches never 
makes the work, though he is always expected to 
cover and hide all the faults of bad workmanship, bad 
selection of timber, and a thousand other objection- 
able things in connection with work over which he 
has had no control. In order to aid the finisher as 
much as possible, I give a few hints herewith, for the 
use of the workman whose duty it may be to prepare 
and put up the work to be finished. The suggestions 
given are equally applicable for hard and soft woods, 
and I trust they will not be out of place. 

First, then, see that the material is dry, free from 
imperfections, of the full sizes required, and of such 
variety of grain as may be suitable for the purpose 
intended. Next, make all joints close and as near 
perfect as possible, as on this point rests, in a great 
measure, the artistic appearance of the work. Make 
all angles sharp and clean, and all mitered mouldings 
true and with perfect intersections. Never use glass 
paper where a scraper can be applied, and when a 
large quantity of mouldings of similar contour and size 
are to be employed; it is always better to make a 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



6i 




Fig. 51 



scraper their reverse shape, and use it in cleaning and 
preparing the mouldings for the varnisher, than to use 
glass paper for the purpose. 

The scraper illustrated by Fig. 51, ana shown handled 
by Fig. 52, is an aid in producing surfaces more flat 
and regular than can 
be produced with 
the plane alone. Its 
use does not dis- 
pense with the 
plane; on the con- 
trary, any surface 
on which the scraper 
is to be used must previously be planed as level and 
smooth as plane can make it. But the plane, in doing 
its work — no matter how sharp it may be, or how closely 
the back-iron is set up to the edge of the cutting iron, 
or how straight across the edge the cutting iron is 
sharpened — is liable to leave marks and ridges on the 
face of the work, which, on hard woods, 
are not effectively removed by the use 
of sandpaper alone. The scraper is 
used after the plane has finished its work, 
and previous to the final operation of 
sandpapering. In addition to the re- 
moval of the ridges left by the plane, 
the scraper is used for dressing up all 
kinds of cross-grained surfaces that occur 
in curly and figured solid and veneer woods; but as far 
as possible this use of the scraper should be avoided. 
Excessive dressing up of a cross-grained patch on a 
panel, a stile, or a table-top will most certainly show, 
and spoil the flatness and general appearance of the 
article when it is polished. As a rule, such excessive 




Fig. 52 




62 THE UP-TO-DATE 

scraping is resorted to in consequence of the plane 
having been sharpened and set badly, or of some other 
technical oversight or unskillful manipulation. 

The scraper is a thin and very hard steel plate, about 
5 in. by 3 in., or 4>^ in. by 2j^ in., and slightly less 
than yV in- ^^ thickness. The long edges are sharpened 
in a peculiar manner. Both of the long edges may be 
straight, as in Fig. 51, and at AB, Fig. 53, or one 
edge may have round corners of differing radii, as at 

CD. These corners are 
^ often useful in working 
up hollows and mould- 
ings generally. The 
"straight" edge AB, it 
will be noticed, is not 
quite straight throughout 
its whole length. Near 
the ends the edge is gradually rounded off, to prevent 
the corners catching in the surface that is being operated 
on. In this respect, the commercial scraper (Fig. 51) is 
incorrectly shaped. The cutting power of a scraper 
depends upon, first, the quality and temper of the steel 
of which it is made; and, secondly, upon the proper 
formation of the burr or feather along its edges. Also, 
the faces of the steel plate must be perfectly bright 
and free from rust marks or indentations of any kind. 
It is by no means an uncommon thing to find any rusty 
piece of sheet steel— a piece of an old hand saw or 
try-square, for example — being used as a scraper. 
The smallest appreciation of why the scraper cuts 
would indicate how useless such material is for this 
particular purpose. On the other hand, scarcely any- 
thing better can be found for making a scraper than a 
piece of broken saw blade, provided the sides of it are 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 63 

still polished and bright. The fact that the saw was 
broken may easily be taken to indicate a higher temper 
than usual in the blade, thus fitting it exactly for the 
purpose of a scraper. The temper of an ordinary 
saw blade is not usually hard enough. Provided 
that there is enough elasticity to "give" in the 
operator's hands as it is being pushed along, the 
scraper should be nearly too hard for an ordinary 
file to touch. If it can be filed easily, then its edge 
will soon be gone. At the same time, if the steel 
is merely hard without the required amount of elas- 
ticity, the burr will strip off as it is applied to the 
work, leaving a coarse, jagged edge which is worse 
than useless. 

The correctly sharpened scraper is a real cutting 
tool, and not, as its name suggests — and as in practice 
it often is — a mere abrader of the surface. When in 
good working trim, the scraper should, if desired, take 
off shaving after shaving perfectly uniform in thick- 
ness, and nearly as wide as the cutting edge is long. 
But such a performance is rarely required of it, and 
never when the plane has previously done its work 
properly. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the 
fact that the proper duty of the scraper is not to make 
a surface, but to correct the irregularities on it. In 
explanation of the cutting action of the scraper, a 
diagrammatic figure is shown in Fig. 66. The figure 
correctly illustrates the cutting principle, though it 
does not represent a true section of the scraper. In 
use, the scraper is held firmly in both hands and tilted 
forwards, away from the operator, until the cutting 
edge grips the surface of the wood, exactly as shown 
in Fig. 54. It is then kept steadily at this angle, and 
made to cut a fine shaving at each stroke as it is being 



64 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



pushed away from the operator in the direction frona 
h to F (Fig. 54). 

The proper formation of the burr edge is of the 
greatest importance. Having procured a suitable 




Fig. 54 



steel plate, a usual but not recommended method is 
as follows: The plate is laid down on the bench as 
shown in Fig. 55. A narrow chisel, brad-awl or gouge, 

as shown in Fig. 
56, is then laid on 
the scraper hori- 
zontally, and with 
considerable pres- 
sure is stroked 
backwards and 
forwards from end 
to end of the 
plate, G to H, 
Fig. 55. After 
about 10 or 12 
strokes the scraper is turned over and the other side is 
treated in the same manner. This completes the first 
part of the process of sharpening. Next, the gouge 




Fig. 55 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



6i 



is placed vertically against the edge, as shown in Fig. 
57, and stroked to and fro with about the same 
pressure and firmness as the sides of plate received. 




Fig. 56 

and about the same number of times. Or else, for 

this second part, the scraper may be placed on its 

corner on the bench, as shown in Fig. 58, and held 

firmly in the left 

hand, while the 

right hand deftly 

strokes the convex 

side of the gouge 

with a quick action 

and considerable 

pressure, once or 

twice in an upward 

direction, as from 

I to J in Fig. 58. 

Thescraper is then 

tried on the work 

to determine its 

sharpness. If, 

after this process, 

thescraper fails to 

cut satisfactorily, 

it is laid down on 

the bench and the two processes are repeated. The 

following is a better method of sharpening a scraper: 

First, have the scraper ground so that its edge shall be 




Fig. 57 



66 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



straight and square, and slope up at the ends, as shown 
at A and B, Fig. 53. It should then be placed on its edge 
on a fine-cutting oilstone, as shown in Fig. 60, and 
rubbed backwards and forwards until all traces of the 
grinding have disappeared. Then it should be laid flat 
on its side, still on the oilstone, as in Fig. 61, and 
rubbed until the sides are bright and polished all along 
the edges. If any false burr or feather-edge has been 

created in this last 
process, the scrap- 
er must be set up 
on its edge again, 
as in Fig. 60, and 
rubbed a little 
more, until two 
perfectly square 
and sharp corners 
appear all along 
the scraper. Now, 
if due care has 
really been taken 
inmaking the 
corners perfect 
and square, the 
scraper in this condition would produce shavings 
tolerably well on any hardwood; but the shaving 
would be the result of abrasive and not of cutting 
action. It is purely a matter of choice if, at this 
stage, a smooth-backed gouge is passed to and fro 
over the side of the scraper, as in Fig. 55, with the 
object of imparting a still higher polish to the plate of 
st^el at the places where the burr is to be formed. 
But the greatest care must be taken not to press too 
heavily, and also to maintain a perfectly level position 




HARDWOOD FINISHER 



67 



with the gouge, while the polishing is being done. As 
stated, this polishing of the side is not really 
necessary, and the scraper would cut very well without 




Fig. 59 

its supposed assistance. Next, the scraper is placea 
on its corner on the bench, and a flat and smooth- 
backed gouge is passed once — or at most twice — along 

the edge. The scraper 
during this operation 
may be held either as 
already shown in Fig, 
57, or as is here rec- 
ommended and shown 
in Fig. 61 ; or it may be 
fastened in the bench- 
vise. The aim in this 
particular action is the production of an exceedingly fine 
burr, scarcely enough to be called a burr at all, but a per- 
fectly regular bending over of the corner; the gouge 




Fig. 60 



68 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



must be very lightly pressed, or it will cause the bun 
to curl up too much, and also it must be kept nearly, 
though not quite, horizontal. With regard to resharp- 

ening the scraper, 
when this becomes 
necessary, the 
scraper must be 
placed upon the 
oilstone and 
rubbed up again to 
perfectly square 
corners as pre- 
viously described 
in connection with 
Figs. 60 and 61. 

There are other 
methods of sharp- 
ening scrapers 
which are made 
use of by some 
workmen; indeed, nearly every workman, after expe- 
rience, will adopt such method as will seem to him to 
be the best for the purpose. There are workmen who 
seldom or never use an oilstone, but employ 
a fine file instead, and draw file the edge of 
the scraper as shown in Fig. 63. This is done 
by placing the scraper in a vise and with a 
smooth, flat file making the edge perfectly 
square and as straight as possible after the man- 
ner of jointing a hand saw. Next place the file 
squarely across the edge and pass it from end to end of 
the scraper two or three times. This operation is known 
as draw-filing, a plan view of the position and direction 
of the file being shown in Fig. 63. Treat all four edges 




^'W. 



m 

Fig. 62 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



69 



the same way. The edge, as it will now appear, is 
shown enlarged and exaggerated in Fig. 64. Remove 
the scraper from the vise and lay it flat on the bench, 
then taking the gouge, Fig. 56, rub out straight all the 
wire edges, keeping the gouge on the scraper and passing 
it quickly back and forth after the manner of stropping 




Fig. 63 



a razor. The edge will then appear as in Fig. 65. 

Now, taking the scraper in the left hand and holding 

it firmly edgewise on the bench, place the gouge 

across the edge, making a small bevel with the side of 

the scraper, and draw it upward two or three times, 

using considerable pressure^ This will turn the edge 

back as it was after filing, but it will 

now be straight instead of grooved, and 

smooth instead of ragged. All of the 

eight edges must be treated in the same 

manner, when they will appear as in 

Fig. 66, and the scraper should now f??^ 

Fig. 64 take off 3 shaving like a smooth-plane, Fig. 65 

but much finer. 

In order to resharpen the scraper it is not necessary 

to go through the filing operation again for some time — 

simply flatten out the edges and turn them again with 

a little more bevel than before. This can be done 




70 



THE UP-TO-DATE 




Fig. 66 



very rapidly. In order to avoid too many stops, 
always keep three or four scrapers at hand and sharpen 

them all at once. 
The best thing 
with which to hold 
the scraper is a 
piece of sandpa- 
per, with the 
sanded side next 
the scraper. This 
gives a good grip 
and prevents the 
tool from burning 
the fingers. 

Some people file the edge of the scraper rounding, 
to prevent the corners from catching. This is not at 
all necessary, as the 
action of pushing the 
scraper bends it slight- 
ly, which raises the cor- 
ners somewhat. The 
sharpening of a scraper, 
however, like the sharp- 
ening of a hand saw, 
takes considerable prac- 
tice and no little knack; 
so if at first one does 
not succeed it is only 
necessary to keep peg- 
ging away at it until 
success crowns the 
efforts, for it is well 
worth all the trouble. It may De mentioned incident- 
ally that a good burnisher may be bought all ready at 



Fig. 67 




HARDWOOD FINISHER 



71 



any good hardware store. Leather curriers use them 
for turning the edges of their knives and they are bet- 
ter than a gouge because of their being tempered harder 
and more highly finished. 

The true theory of a scraper, for some purposes, 
may be described as follows: Where there is a lot of 
superfluous wood to remove, as in hardwood floors or 
other similar work, where it is not desirable to use a 
smooth plane, it is well to file or grind the scraper to a 
bevel, the same as a 
plane iron, and bring it 
to a keen edge on the 
oilstone; then proceed 
to burnish it. Hold the 
burnisher slightly at an 
angle with the bevel as 
indicated in Fig. 67, 
and draw it lightly 
across the blade. Then 
increase the angle and 
the pressure, repeating 
the process until the 
burnisher is at nearly 
right angles with the 
blade, after which run 

the burnisher back and forward a few times, first one 
side and then the other, as indicated in Fig. 68, when it 
is ready for use. When it becomes a little dull, do not 
turn the edge back, as many do, but use the burnisher, 
as shown in Fig. 68. A good blade will stand for two 
or three hours without filing or grinding. 

For fine work file or grind the blade perfectly square 
on the edge and get it perfectly smooth on the oil- 
stone. Then hold the burnisher as shown in Fig. 69, 




72 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



the dotted lines indicating how to start and the full 
Hnes how to finish. In all cases finish the operation 
as shown in Fig. 69. If unsuccessful the first time, do 
not give up the job, for the scraper is a tool that 
requires a great deal of practice in order to become 
expert in sharpening. 

Defective Sharpening of Scrapers. — A frequent mis- 
take is to put too great pressure on the gouge, and to 
stroke too much. One or two strokes should be quite 
I , sufficient to give the 

scraper the proper 
edge. At all events, 
after the scraper has 
had a couple of 
strokes of the bur- 
nisher or gouge, it 
should be tried, and 
if it does not grip the 
work properly, give 
it a few strokes more. 
Scrapers with a high 
temper require more 
burnishing than if 
soft or medium tem- 
per, but if overdone, the edge will crumble and it will not 
do clean work. Soft scrapers are easier handled than 
hard ones, but require a great deal more sharpening, 
and this sometimes leads to rough work, as the workman 
will not take time to repeatedly put his scraper in order. 
As before stated, the workman should have at least 
three or four scrapers on hand, and they should always 
be kept in good order. It is a good plan to have a 
little box or case in the tool chest purposely to hold 
scrapers, for two reasons: The workman will always 




HARDWOOD FINISHER 



73 




Fig. 70 



know where to find them when wanted and, secondly, 
it will save the edges from being broken or damaged 
by being jolted or 
rubbed against other 
tools. 

Varieties of Scrap- 
ers. — There is a new 
scraper in the market 
which is said to be 
superior to anything 
made in the scraper 
line. A representa- 
tion of it is shown in Fig. 70, which is taken from an 
advertisement. I do not know of my own knowledge 

how the scraper 
works, but, judg- 
ing from its shape 
and setting, I 
should think it 
theoretically cor- 
FiG. 71 rect. 

Other shapes of scrapers are shown in Figs. 71 and 
']2. The first of these is intended for smoothing up 
hollows and rounds. A 
number of these should 
be kept on hand, with 
curves of various radii. 
Fig. 72 shows a scraper 
made purposely for clean- 
ing out hollows of various 
curvatures, and will be 
found very useful on work 
where there are a number of curves or other hollow 
mouldings. Often the workman may have to make 





Fig. 72 



74 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



>>^S^^^^5!^ 



Fig. 73 



scrapers to suit certain kinds of work, and when 
such is the case, he should make it a fixed rule 
never to change them, but to keep them in his tool 
chest, and make others, when necessary, from new 
material. An old hand saw blade 
generally answers quite well for scrap- 
ers, and one saw will make a couple 
of dozen scrapers of different sizes and 
shapes. 
How to Use Sandpaper. — For properly 
using sandpaper a rubber is needed. A piece of ma- 
hogany or clean pine, sH ir^- by 3 in. by I in., shaped 
as in Fig. 73, answers well if a piece of sheet cork is 
glued on the face as shown. Fold a piece of sandpa- 
per, 6 in. wide and about 10 in. long, into three, place it 
sand side downwards, and put the face of the rubber 
on the middle division. Grasp the rubber so that the 
ends of the sandpaper are held firmly on its back and 
sides (see Fig. 74), and work then can be commenced. 
A solid rubber about one inch thick makes an 
excellent block for the purpose. A piece of rubber 
belting glued to a piece of bass- 
wood also makes a good rubber 
block. 

Rasps and Files.— The wood- 
worker occasionally uses rasps, 
and these generally are half- 
round, though sometimes flat. 
The cabinet rasp shown in Fig. 
75 is not a very coarse one. 

Cabinet and wood rasps range from 4 in. to 14 in. 
in length, and at 12 in. and less the price is about 
4 cents per inch. The extra 2 in. in a 14-inch rasp 
adds nearly 50 per cent to the price. Files also 




Fig. 74 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 75 

are used, for smoothing up hardwood. When a 
file is used, it should be pushed and drawn in the 
direction of the grain. The file usually em- 
ployed by carriage makers for 
smoothing up spokes and other 
work is generally a half-round 
bastard file, and when properly 
used makes exceedingly smooth 
work. A finer file than the bastard 
is shown in Fig. 'jd. This is some- 
times used for finishing narrow 
flat work. 

SAWS FOR WORKING HARDWOOD 

Saw-filing is an art unto itself, 
and few men ever attain the art 
to perfection. To file a saw in 
such manner that the working of 
it is a pleasure requires an amount 
of skill and a high order of tech- 
jwfijjpjllj nical knowledge that can only be 
W^P acquired by thought and expe- 
mW^ rience; yet a properly set and filed 
saw is a real necessity in the mak- 
ing of good joiners' work, and, 
while every workman cannot 
become an expert saw-filer, he 
ought at least to possess such 
knowledge of the art as will ena- 
ble him to set and file his own 
saws in such a manner as will ena- 
ble him to execute such work as 
he maybe called upon to make; 
Fis. 75 and to this end, I propose to offer Fig. 76 






76 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



a few instructions and remarks that will assist him in 
managing his own saws without the employment of 
expert aid. It is not my intention to go into the mat- 
ter of saw-filing to any great extent, as that subject will 
probably be discussed at length in another volume, 
but what I do offer will, I trust, be up to the mark. 

All workmen in wood require two saws, namely, a 
cross-cut saw, and a rip-saw. The shape of the teeth 
in these saws differs, also the size, and each requires a 
special form of tooth and a different style of filing. 

Many workmen think that so long as the tooth of a 
saw has a sharp edge the shape of the tooth is a matter 

f1 




^^ 



Fig. 77 



of small importance, and as a result of this ignorance 
or indifference they are always in trouble with their 
saws, and their work becomes much more laborious 
than if proper attention had been paid to the shape of 
the teeth. Substances of different texture cannot be 
cut advantageously with the same tool; in fact, the 
tool must be adapted to the work if the best all- 
round results are to be produced. Fig. yy illustrates 
a form of tooth suitable for an ordinary hand rip-saw. 
The tooth points number about four to the inch, and 
the front of the tooth is upright, that is, at an angle 
of 90°. The face of the tooth should be filed to an 
angle of 85° to 87°, or 3° to 5° from the square. Some 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



77 



experts contend that the teeth of a rip-saw should be 
filed dead square. The object in filing them a little 
on the bevel is that the teeth may cut more freely and 
easily when they have become a bit dull, there being 
then what is termed a little clearance cut in the teeth. 
In nearly all timber there is, it is well known, a certain 



V7 




Fig. 78 

amount of fiber to be cut either directly or obliquely 
across, and teeth that are filed square will not, whether 
they are sharp or dull, divide this fiber so easily as 
teeth that have a slight bevel. 

The illustration. Fig. 77, shows a saw tooth that 
works quite well in the softer woods, but for the harder 




Fig. 79 



woods a little more plane or angle on the cutting edge 
would cause the saw to cut with less labor; and if the*'^ 
were about five teeth to the inch, it would cut with eac 
any kind of hardwood. 

The teeth shown in Fig. 78 are well suited to a hand 
saw used for cross-cutting soft wood. The tooth 



78 THE UP-TO-DATE 

points in this saw may number five or six to the inch. 
The front of the tooth slopes at an angle of about 105°. 
The face of the tooth in sharpening should be filed to 
an angle of from 55° to 60°. The softer the timber 
that is to be cross-cut, the more acute should be the 
angle of the teeth, as the keener edge separates the 
fibers more easily. Fig. 79 shows a form of hand saw 




Fig. 80 

tooth suitable for cross-cutting hardwood. The number 
of tooth points may be from six to eight to the inch, 
and the front of the tooth should slope at an angle of 
110° to 115°, according to the hardness of the timber 
to be sawed. The face of this tooth should be filed to 
an angle of 70° to 75°, because the cutting edge must 

be less acute owing to hard- 

'^^NWA^^M^^^^A wood fibers being more com- 

\ pact than those of soft wood. 

■p o, ihe whole number of saws 

made use of by the wood- 
worker amounts to some six or eight, comprising the 
rip, cross-cut, hand, panel, tenon, dovetail, bow or 
turning, and keyhole. The hand saw type includes 
the hand saw proper, the ripping, half-ripping, and 
panel saws, all of similar outline, but differing in 
dimensions, and in form and size of teeth. There is 
no sharp distinction between these tools, as they merge 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



79 



*'5 



Fig. 82 



one into the other; yet at the extremes it would be 

impossible to substitute the ripping and panel saws 

one for the other. The hand 

saw, however, which is a kind 

of compromise between ex- 
tremes, is used indiscriminately 

for all purposes. 

A tenon, or back-saw, is 

shown in Fig. 80. It is made 

in different lengths, and the C* *-'*•--?, 

blades are not all made the '•.. 

same width. The dovetail saw 

is a back-saw with a very thin 

blade; it is not much used in 

this country, only by Euro- 
peans. It is intended especially for very fine work. 

The other saws named are for special purposes, and 

need not be described here. 
The methods of filing, how- 
ever, are about the same as 
described for the saws first 
named, with the exception 
of the bow or scroll saw. 
This saw, which is intended 
^^^ to cut with and across the 
*: grain, or obliquely to it, 
..) should have its teeth filed 
with a sharper plane than a 
rip-saw, but not quite so 
sharp as a cross-cut saw; in 
Fig. 83 other words, it wants a 

hybrid tooth, "between ana 

betwixt" across-cut and a rip-saw tooth. (See Fig. 81.) 
The set of a saw is important, and this is shown in 






80 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



Fi^s. 77, 78, 82 and 83. The teeth at both point and 
butt of a hand saw should be very slightly smaller than 
those in the middle, as it is at the last-named point 
where the greatest force is exerted in every down 
stroke. But it is absolutely necessary that the set is 
the same from point to butt of every saw, whether rip 
or cross-cut. The middle of the cutting edge of a 
cross-cut saw should be slightly rounded, being 
highest at about the middle. The saw being still in 




Fig. 84 



the saw vise, insert the file in a handle, and grasp it 
with the right hand, taking the point of file in the leit, 
as shown in Fig. 84. Place the file against the face of 
that tooth nearest the handle that inclines away from 
the worker, holding the file at an angle with the blade 
or saw as shown in Fig. 84. Then lower the right 
hand to about the angle shown in' Fig. 85 (which shows 
the left hand removed). The file should be held 
obliquely across the saw blade, as in Figs. 83 and 84, 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



8i 



the point end of the file being inclined towards the 
saw handle as illustrated by Fig. 84. Gently push the 
file forwards, lifting it at the end of stroke, returning 
it, and again pushing it, until the point of the tooth 
has a keen edge. Repeat this upon each alternate 
tooth until all upon one side are sharpened. Serve the 
other side in the same manner. Be careful not to press 
the file against the back of the tooth, as unevenness 
will surely result. 

Keep all saws slightly rounding on the edge. The 
rip-saw and the hand saw may have a full quarter of 
an inch rounding with advantage. All saws, except 
circulars, have 
a constant ten- 
dency to get 
hollow, and this 
must be pre- 
vented; and the 
only way to pre- 
vent it is to file 
the teeth down by passing a partly-worn file along 
the edges till it touches every tooth. Then, in 
filing the teeth, take care only just to take out this 
bright mark — not one touch more or that tooth will 
be shorter than its neighbors. A saw properly sharp- 
ened, and in good order, has each tooth do its proper 
share of cutting and no more. 

Sharpening Tenon Saws. — Sharpening tenon saws is 
practically the same as sharpening hand saws. It may 
happen, however, that some of the teeth will be much 
larger than others, this being due to the file not 
having been held at the same angle in sharpening 
each tooth. Fig. 81 shows the saw teeth improperly 
sharpened, the front of the large teeth inclining much 




82 THE UP-TO-DATE 

more than the front of the small teeth. If th^ teeth 
in one range are found to be filed smaller than those 
in the other, file the back of the smaller teeth to a 
more acute angle, keeping the file at the same time 
well against the front of the other tooth at the bot- 
tom, and see before the filing is finished, that the front 
of the next tooth has been filed up to its point, as it 
is the front, not the back, of the tooth that does the 
cutting. To regulate the teeth of the saw, file every 
tooth in succession, shooting the file straight across 
the teeth. After filing all the teeth from one side, 
turn the saw, and file as before from the other side- 
When the teeth are fairly regular, the flat file may be 
run over them lightly. This will bring the teeth 
uniform in length. Now file every alternate tooth, 
first on one side and then on the other side of the saw, 
as shown in Fig. 84. Hold the file as nearly as 
possible to the same angle in each case, as it is on 
this filing that the regularity of the teeth depends. 
When all the flat places caused by the file when 
topping the teeth disappear, cease filing, as any further 
filing may cause low teeth, which tend to make the 
saw cut irregularly. When the saw is so filed that all 
the teeth get their equal share of cutting, the saw may 
be said to be well filed. When the teeth are filed as 
shown in Fig. 83, there is a larger and better cutting 
edge than with the one more obtuse. If the points 
only of the teeth are allowed to do the work, the action 
is a scratching and not a cutting one. 

One of the great difficulties in hand sharpening is to 
get the bevels of the teeth exactly alike. A number 
of mechanical arrangements to guide the saw and 
effect this object have been tried with more or less 
success. In one of the best of these devices a circular 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



83 



casting is divided and indexed from its center each 
way, giving bevels for each side of the saw, or square 
across. The file is fitted into a guide, and is held by 
a >'et-screw. The index shows the pitch at which the 
file is set, and a rod passes through holes in a graduat- 
ing ring and guides the file. The frame upon which 
the ring is held slides in grooves cut on each side of 
the vise in which the saw is fixed; a table connected 
with the guide is arranged and indexed so as to give 
the required bevel and pitch for the kind of saw to 
be filed, and it is only necessary to set the ring for 
the bevel, and the indicator for 
the pitch, and the apparatus is 
ready for use. As the filing is 
proceeded with from tooth to 
tooth, the frame follows, giving 
to each tooth on one side of the 
saw the same bevel, pitch, and 
size as on the other, thus leaving 
the saw, when filing is finished, 
with the teeth all uniform in size, 
pitch, and bevel, so that each tooth 
will do its share of cutting equally 

with the others, thus turning out more and better qual- 
ity of work with less expenditure of energy. An old- 
fashioned way of getting the right angle of a tooth of a 
hand saw in filing is shown by Fig. 86. A hand saw blade 
is narrowest in width at the point, and broadest at the 
butt; a J the slope of the back, compared with the 
line of teeth, is almost always uniform for all saws; 
and if a square be placed against this back, a tooth 
may be filed whose cutting edge is perfectly in line 
with the edge of the square. All the teeth being thus 
filed and afterwards set, a saw which will answer 




84 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



geneial purposes is produced, and one which will suit 
the worker who has but one hand saw. It will cross- 
cut soft woods and rip hard woods, thus being a kind 
of half-rip. Moreover, this square may be used as a 
gauge, the teeth not necessarily being filed as shown; 
and if the rake or lead be very much, an adjustable 
bevel may be used. 

PLANES GENERALLY 

In workshop practice, planes are the tools chiefly 
used for smoothing the surface of wood after it has 
been sawed to approximate size. In its simplest form, 

a plane is a chisel firmly fixed 
into a block of wood by which 
it is guided in its cut, and the 
amount of wood taken off in 
the form of a shaving is reg- 
ulated to a nicety. In fact, 
such a simple tool actually is 
used sometimes, when a proper 
plane of the requisite shape 
and of a suitable size cannot be procured. To make 
the construction of an ordinary plane quite clear, a 
section of one is illustrated by Fig. 87, in which A 
shows the section of stock; B, the wedge; C, cutting 
iron; D, back iron; E, the screw for fastening irons 
together; and F is the mouth through which the 
shavings pass upwards. A plane is simply a copying 
tool, and a notch in the plane-iron at once proves that 
the pattern produced corresponds with the edge of 
the plane-iron, and all the imperfections of this edge 
will be copied on to the stuff. In all planing oper- 
ations the edge of the tool is the pattern, which is 
copied in reverse on the wood. If a hollow is required 




Fig. 87 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 85 

to be produced on the wood, a tool is used with a 
round edge of exactly similar form to the hollow we 
wish produced. In machine planing the pattern is the 
edge of the tool, which produces a similar surface 
upon the wood. 

Direction of Grain in Planes. — For flat planes such as 
jack, try, and smoothing planes, the grain must be 
straight and, of course, run lengthways of the tool. 
The wood is selected from a center plank of beech as 
near to the bark as possible; in all planes, the wood 
nearest the bark, that being the hardest part of the 
wood, becomes the sole or working surface. The wood 
is seasoned thoroughly, and never is used until at 
least three years after cutting. Moulding planes 
mostly work on the spring, and need not have the 
grain so straight as flat planes. Hollows, rounds, and 
rebate planes are exceptional, however, and should 
have the grain as straight as possible, because the 
rebate plane is cut right through, and is liable to cast 
or warp if not quite straight-grained; and most of the 
hollows and rounds, being thin, are liable to cast also 
if not of straight, mil^d, and well-seasoned wood. 
Wood for plane making should be as free from knots 
as possible. 

Jack and Trying Planes. — The jack plane, Fig. 88, is 
the first applied to the wood after it has been sawed. 
This plane is always employed to remoye the rough- 
ness of the work before finishing up with trying and 
smoothing planes. It is made up of five parts — 
namely, the stock (which should be 17 in. in length), 
the toat or handle, the wedge, the cutting iron or 
cutter {2}i in. broad), and back iron. Immediately 
behind the iron is a handle, which, in use, is grasped 
only by the right hand in planing fir; but in heavy 



86 THE UP-TO-DATE 

planing, and especially in hardwood, it is necessary to 
place the left hand across the front of the plane to 
press it down, to cause the iron to take hold of the 
wood. When using both hands to the plane, the left 
is placed with the four fingers lying across the top 
near the fore end, the thumb passing down the near 
side. Well-seasoned beech is a suitable wood for the 
stock. The construction of the trying or truing 
plane is almost exactly the same as that of the jack 




Fig. 88 

plane, but it is much longer, so as to produce truer 
surfaces. 

Using the Plane. — When using the plane, always keep 
the plane well oiled in front of the iron; be sure and 
work with the grain as shown in Fig. 89, whenever 
possible. A far thicker shaving can be taken off 
smoothly in this way than if worked as shown in Fig. 
90, which is working against the grain and requires 
more careful work with a more finely set plane. Do 
not use the plane at an uncomfortable height. When 
the board to be planed is in position, and the worker 
takes hold of the plane ready to begin work, a line 
drawn through his elbow and wrist should be rather 
lower than higher at the wrist, though if the forearm is 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



87 



level it will do fairly well. Do not attempt to take off 
thick shavings at the outset, and do not be dis- 
appointed if a shaving is not taken off from end to 
end at the first trial. If the wood has any hollow in 
it, it will be impossible to do this, and even if it is 
perfectly straight it is sometimes difficult to do it. 




Fig. 89 

There is always a tendency to plane off too much near 
the bench stop, as the arm is apt to be raised at this 
point. Errors of this kind can be avoided by careful 
practice and attention. It is a good idea to try to 
plane the center of the material rather than the margin, 
for if a good plane is in proper order it is impossible 
to make the work too hollow or concave; whereas, 




Fig. 90 

however good the plane, careless use of it can and will 
make the work convex in every direction. 

In making use of the smoothing plane for finishing 
up stuff, it should be held as shown in Fig. 91, the 
right hand grasping it firmly at the back, whilst the 
left hand steadies it in front. In starting, the tool is 



88 



THE UP-TO-DATE 




Fig. 91 



applied to the fore-end of the board, and gradually 
worked backwards, thus taking out any marks pre- 
viously used tools may have made. It should be held 
firmly, and lifted sharply at the end of stroke, or a 
mark will be left where the plane 
finished. The work is continued 
until the board presents a per- 
fectly smooth surface, without 
marks of any kind. The left hand 
should frequently be passed across 
the face of the board, as any 
marks made by the plane can be 
readily detected in this manner. It may also with 
advantage be held so that the light passes across its 
surface from the side, thus showing up imperfect 
planing. Should there be too much iron out, a few 
blows with the hammer at the back of the plane will 
draw it back. Take care to tighten up the wedge 
again. A few drops of linseed oil applied to the face 
of the plane will facilitate the planing. 

The proper method of setting an iron in a plane so 
that it will not show lines or marks on the work, is 
sometimes quite a difficult operation, as the iron is 




.f^. 



Fig. 92 



expected to be perfectly square and straight on the 
face. It is always well to either round off the corners 
of the iron slightly, or grind them with a slight bevel, 
which will keep the corners from "digging in." 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 89 

The smaller, or break-iron, whose office is to bend 
up the shaving somewhat sharply so as to ensure the 
cutting of the other iron, and to prevent its splitting 
off the surface of the work, should be placed so as to 
come within one-eighth of an inch of the extreme 
edge of the cutter for rough work, and within one- 
twentieth for finer or finishing .work. The two should 
then be placed in position so that the edge projects the 
smallest possible degree below the sole. The position 
can only be determined by looking carefully along the 




Fig. 93 

bottom of the plane, with the front of the same next 
to the eye, as in Fig. 92. The edge will, if correctly 
formed and placed, appear quite parallel with the sole. 
It is then ready for use. The same rule appl:^« to the 
small as to the large planes, except that in the jack- 
plane the iron projects rather more, as it is used for 
roughing down a surface. The trying-plane, which is 
longer, as before stated, and intended for edging 
boards which are to be joined lengthwise, is always 
very finely set, and the mouth is narrow. The break* 



90 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



iron is also set very close down to the cutting edge. 
The longer the plane the more accurately level and 
true will be the work done by it. 

New planes are often a source of trouble owing to 
the shavings getting fast in the mouth, the plane 
refusing to take any more until the wedge and iron 
have been removed, and all cleaned out. The cause 
of this difficulty is that the mouth of the plane is too 
narrow, as shown in Fig. 93. Sometimes workmen cut 




Fig. 94 



a little out with a chisel, but in many instances this 
results in spoiling the tool, because in a short time 
the bottom of the plane wears away, and the mouth 
gets larger, subsequently getting so laige as to require 
a piece to be set in to lessen the opening. The mouth 
of the plane can be kept open as long as needed by 
gluing a strip of soft leather, about three-fourths of 
an inch wide, in the mouth of the plane under the top 
end of the iron as shown in Fig. 94. When the plane 
bottom is sufificiently worn the leather can be removed 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



91 



and the iron put back into its original position. The 
leather causes the iron to be more upright, and con- 
sequently there is a larger opening in the mouth (two 
thicknesses can be put under if necessary). 

Pitch of Plane Cutting Iron. — To assist the reader to 
understand correctly the principles of plane-iron 
sharpening, the following information is given. The 
seat of the plane-iron is made at different angles, to 
give the pitch to suit different kinds of work. The 
four angles most in use are as follows: Common 
pitch, in which the seat for the back of the iron is at 
an angle of 45° from the sole (this inclination is 
usually employed for all 
planes for soft wood); New 
York pitch, which has an 
angle of 50°, and is adapted 
for use with mahogany and 
other hard, stringy woods; 
middle pitch or 55°, and 
half pitch or 60°, which are 
employed with moulding 
planes, the former being for 

soft wood and the latter for the harder kinds. Fig. 95 
affords an idea of three angles, A giving the set of a 
half-pitched plane, B that of an ordinary plane, while 
C shows the inclination of an extra-pitched plane. 
The pitch or angle at which the cutter is set is of 
importance. There are three angles involved in this 
case: (i) The angle between the cutter and the 
surface of the work; this should be as small an angle 
as possible. It is obvious that if the surfaces of the 
cutter and the work were perfectly parallel, the cutter 
would glide over the surface without cutting, except 
under great pressure. By making the cutter edge 




Fig. 95 



92 



THE UP-TO-DATE 




Fig. 96 



rather than its whole surface touch the work, the 
tendency to cut and to continue the contact is secured. 
The angle, which may be called the clearance angle, 
or the back angle, should only be enough to secure this 
condition of contact. (2) The angle of the cutter 
itself. The more acute this angle the better, if only 

the material will stand the 
strain and face the work with- 
out losing its edge. (3) The 
front or remaining angle 
may be found by subtracting 
both (i) and (2) from 180°, 
if dealing with plane sur- 
faces, and is available for 
the passing away of the waste 
material; in the case of the plane, however, this is lim- 
ited, in order to provide means to prevent the shaving 
being torn up in advance of the cutting action. This 
provision is made by the front portion of the plane, 
and to be efficacious must be in contact with the work 
and as near the edge of the cutter as possible to allow 
waste to escape. A few 
experiments with a knife 
will show that for soft ma- 
terials a slight angle is 
best. This involves a thin 
knife, and its side almost 
in contact with the mate- 
rial *.o be cut; but as harder 
things are tried the stiff- 
ness of the cutter, and the consequent angle, must 
be increased, not because it is merely desirable, but 
because it is absolutely necessary to have a stronger 
cutter. The more upright an iron is set, the less 




Fig. 97 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 93 



liable is it to tear up the wood in planing; but in 
the same degree the iron loses its edge more quickly, 
is more likely to jump and chatter, and is more 
laborious to work. In toothing planes the irons are 
set upright, and in "old woman's tooth," planes or 
routers nearly upright. In working with an upright 
iron, the action of the tool is a scraping one, while 
the more the iron is inclined the nearer it ap- 
proaches the action of splitting the wood. For this 
reason an ordinary or extra-pitched plane is more 
liable to splinter up the surface of a piece of work; 
but this accident may be in great measure prevented 
by using a properly adjusted back iron. Moulding 
planes, rounds and hollows, bead 
planes, and others that work without ^ ' 

a back iron, are usually preferred Fig. 98 

set to the half-pitch angle; while for 
working on end-grained stuff, extra-pitched tools, such 
as shoulder and bull-nosed planes, give the best results. 
In examining the side of a plane-iron, it is found to be 
made up of an iron back faced with steel. The steel, 
welded on to the iron and distinguished by its 
brighter color and finer grain, acts as a cutting edge, 
the iron being required to give sufficient stiffness to 
prevent chattering. When newly ground and 
sharpened, a plane-iron has three angles, one due to 
the pitch. A, Fig. 97, one made by the grindstone, B, 
and one made by the oilstone, C. The angles A and B 
do not alter, but C gradually becomes more acute with 
sharpening on the oilstone, until it lines with the face 
of the plane, as in Fig. 98, when the iron refuses to 
cut properly, and requires grinding. The pitch angle 
A (Fig. 96) varies in planes by different makers, as 
described above. 



94 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



Oilstones for Sharpening Plane Irons. — A good oilstone, 
capable of putting a keen edge on the plane irons, is 
a necessity to all woodworkers, but more particularly 
to the hardwood finisher. The Washita stone, manu- 
factured by the Pike Mfg. Co., or other fast cutting 
stones are useful for removing the waste or superfluous 
metal from the iron when it is too thick; but it is 
seldom that one of these stones can be trusted to leave 
a keen edge on the tool. Turkey and Washita stones 
are the only ones that have the two good qualities 
combined of cutting quickly and leaving a good edge. 

Most other oilstones are 
slow cutters, but they are 
to be relied on for leaving 
a good, keen edge. It is 
necessary that the oilstone 
should be kept perfectly 
level, or it will not be pos- 
sible to get a true edge. 
The stone should also be 
free from grit, or the iron 
will be gapped in sharpen- 
ing, and will leave ridges 
on the planed work. In 
sharpening the iron after it 
has been newly ground, the hands should be kept low to 
make the bevel correspond nearly with that made by 
the grindstone. As time goes on, when the iron is 
resharpened the hands are kept a little higher upon 
each occasion (see Fig. 97), until it becomes thick, as 
in Fig. 98; then it must be again put upon the grind- 
stone. Some workers find it convenient to use two 
oilstones— one as a quick cutter, to some extent super- 
seding: the grindstone, the other for finishing the edge. 




Fig. 99 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



95 




Fig. 100 



In using the oilstone, first put a few drops of goo J oi) 
upon the stone, and grasp the iron as in Fig. 99; the 
right hand is at the top, and the thumb and fourth 
finger pass under. Place 
the whole of the fingers 
of the left hand upon 
the iron, with the thumb 
at the back, as seen. 
Now put the cutting 
edge (previously ground 
to a bevel) upon the 
stone in an oblique di- 
rection, as shown in 
Fig. 99, bearing in mind the previous remarks on the 
necessary inclination. The iron should now be rubbed 
up and down the stone, pressing it down with both hands. 
If the edge had been examined before placing it upon 
the stone, it would have been found to show a fine white 
line. The object of sharp- 
ening is to remove this, 
which must be done by 
rubbing on an oilstone. 
Having accomplished this, 
turn the iron face down 
upon the stone, and rub it 
lightly a few times (see 
Fig. 100). The iron should 
now have the appearances 




Fig. 101 Fig. 102 

indicated by Fig. loi. If the face of the iron has not 
been kept perfectly flat, it would appear as Fig. 98, 



96 THE UP-TO-DATE 

and would be of no use as a cutting iron. If the iron 
has been rubbed too long, a wire edge will appear and 
utterly spoil the cutting properties of the iron unless 
removed. This may readily be done by rubbing the 
iron alternately upon each side until the wire edge 
falls off. 

When the iron is judged to be sufficiently sharp, it 
should be cleaned, whetted on the left hand, and its 
edge tried for keenness. Some try the edge by passing 
the thumb gently across it, but its sharpness may be 
judged by looking directly at it. In a sharp tool the 
edge is not visible to the naked eye, while if the iron 
should be blunt, the edge will be seen as a bright line. 

SECRET OR BLIND NAILING 

Secret nailing is sometimes called "blind nailing," 
also "chip nailing" and "sliver nailing," and is the 
art of finishing work in a manner which leaves no 
mark of nail holes or screw heads exposed to view, 
which, under the ordinary method of doing work, 
would require puttying before the painter could apply 
the finish. 

The process of secret nailing is only used on 
occasional jobs of hardwood finish where an extra fine 
job is required. The process is very simple and can 
be followed by any mechanic of ordinary skill and 
ability. Take a very thin and sharp paring chisel, ^ 
to y2 inch wide, to raise the "chip." A sharp knife 
should be used to make two cuts with the grain of the 
wood, the width of the chisel apart, to keep the sides 
of the chip from splitting. The chisel should be set at 
a steep angle at first, till the proper depth is reached, 
and then made to turn out a piece of wood of even 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



97 



thickness, about a sixteenth of an inch or near it, and 
of sufficient length to admit of driving the nail or 
screw. Care should be taken in raising the "chip'* 
not to give it too sharp a curve or too great a thick- 
ness, as it is liable to break off while being straightened 
out again. 

Some mechanics prefer a gouge for raising the 
"chip"; the gouge should be ^ to ^ of an inch wide 
and of a quick curve. In this case no knife is needed, 
as the corners of the 
gouge will cut the wood 
as it advances. The 
cut being made and the 
"chip" properly raised, 
a nail or screw may be 
driven in. 

See that the nail or 
screw head is sunk be- 
low the surface of the 
recess, so that the 
"chip" will fit back in 
again without any ob- 
struction. Now take 
properly prepared glue 
and apply to the "chip" and recess, and press the 
"chip" firmly in place, rubbing the face with a smooth 
block till the glue holds, and finish by using a little 
sandpaper. 

If theie is any difficulty about the "chip" breaking 
off, moisten the wood with a little water applied with 
a sponge to the part where the "chip" is to be raised. 
This will be found to be a great advantage if working 
on brittle wood. 

As stated previously, when putting up hardwood 




98 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



finish, where it is desired that no nail or screw heads 
should be in sight, it is always better to make use of 
glue whenever possible; this will be found to be much 
more satisfactory than blind nailing. 

The methods of secret nailing, as described in the 

foregoing, are 
shown in the dia- 
grams, Figs. 103 
and 104. The first 
shows how a square 
chip is raised so 
that a screw or nail 
can be put in place, 
after which the 
raised chip a can 
be glued down in 
place, covering the 
head of nail or 
screw. 
Fig. 104 shows how the work is done by using a 
gouge instead of a chisel. 

Sometimes blind nailing is done by driving headless 
nails in the edge of the work, "toe-nailing" them in 
the work just as matched flooring is laid. This is not 
a satisfactory way to do work and is not recommended, 
though there are cases where it will answer quite well. 




PART TWO 



PART TWO 
WOOD FILLERS AND HOW TO APPLY THEM 

There is no part of the art of wood-finishing that is 
more important than that of the filling, and the 
greatest of care should be exercised both in the choice 
of filler and the manner in which it is applied. The 
stain given to it must also be considered, in order that 
the color and texture of the wood being finished may 
not be disfigured or spoiled. 

Fillers are used by all expert polishers for much the 
same reason that size is used before varnishing — viz., 
to prevent immoderate absorption of the polish by 
the wood. Polish, or even thick varnish, when applied 
to wood, sinks in or is absorbed in places, instead of 
remaining on the surface in a uniform coat. Here 
and there it will be observed that the polish or varnish 
has given more gloss than elsewhere. Where the 
gloss is brightest the varnish has sunk least. 

The grain may be filled up by going over the wood 
with polish till the pores are closed, and some 
beginners may want to know why anything else in the 
nature of a filler should be used. The reason is that 
comparatively valuable French polish need not be 
used when a cheaper material serves the purpose, the 
use of which also saves time. Woods that are open 
in the grain and porous specially need a filler, while 
fine, close-grained woods do not, and may be polished 
without. Still, a suitable filler can do no harm to any 
kind of wood, however fine the grain may be, so there 
can be no disadvantage in going over it with one 

7 



8 THE UP-TO-DATE 

preparatory to polishing. Though it may be a slight 
waste of time, a preliminary rub over with polish 
suffices when working on a fine wood, such as olive 
or rosewood, which are both close and hard. To 
attain the desired thin, glossy film of shellac, which 
shall not be liable to grow dull unreasonably soon, the 
woods ordinarily used in furniture — ash, oak, mahog- 
any, walnut, cherry, etc. — should have the grain filled, 
for they are all of comparatively open grain; ash and 
oak, being especially coarse, are called by polishers 
"hungry woods." Polishers usually give such woods 
one or more coats of spirit varnish as an aid to filling 
up the grain. 

Before commencing the process of filling-in, 
thoroughly brush all dust out of the grain of the wood, 
tor this is wood-dust, sand from the sandpaper, and 
dirt — all inimical to grain luster if mixed up with the 
grain stopper. 

Amongst the best "fillers" is a preparation manu- 
factured in Bridgeport, Conn., and known as "Wheeler's 
Wood-filler," and though it may cost a little more 
than home-made or other fillers, it is certain to give 
satisfaction. This filler has for its base a form of 
mineral silica in an atomic shape, which permits it to 
be ground or pulverized into a very fine, dust-like con- 
dition, in which each particle assumes a needle-pointed 
form, which enables them to enter into the pores of the 
wood and give to the work a gloss-like surface. 

For filling a cheap class of work,' many polishers 
content themselves with giving the work one or two 
coats of glue or patent size, heavily stained by the 
addition of some dry pigment. For mahogany finish 
add Venetian red till it gives quite a red tinge; for 
walnut add brown umber; for pine, add yellow ocher. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER g 

Apply the size hot with a brush, and rub it in lightly 
with a piece of rag, finishing the way of the grain, and 
taking care in the case of turned or moulded work to 
get the filler well in the recessed parts. Of course, 
work that has been sized will not need filling-in. 

As many different kinds of fillers are used, and each 
has its advocates, it will be advisable to name the 
principal fillers used in the trade, and to make a few 
remarks about each, so that learners can experiment 
with them, and perhaps finally fix on that which may 
seem to suit best. All will be found reliable, for 
good work is turned out by polishers with any of 
them, and even an extremely prejudiced individual 
would hesitate to say that any one is really bad, 
though he uses only that which suits him best. Some- 
times, owing to the price, he uses the easiest and 
quickest, irrespective of its quality. 

Wood-fillers ready for use are made for most kinds 
of wood, and, as a rule, they require only thinning 
with a little turpentine. When it is desired to make 
a filler instead of purchasing one ready made, proceed 
as follows: Take a portion of either china clay or 
corn-flour; add boiling linseed oil, and stir until the 
mixture is of the consistency of putty. Then add 
patent dryers and thin with turpentine. If the wood 
on which the filler is to be used is to be kept light in 
color, use raw oil and the lightest variety of dryer. 
Further remarks on home-made fillers will be found 
later on. 

In woods employed for house and cabinet work there 
are two distinct natures; therefore different treatment 
is required in finishing. First, there is the coarse or 
open-grained wood, having its surface perforated with 
innumerable pores or cells. In order to obtain a 



lo THE UP-TO-DATE 

smooth and even finish, these pores should be filled 
up to a level with the hard grain, or, as the grainer 
would term them, the "lights" of the wood. Next 
we have the fine or close-grained wood, which, like 
the preceding, also contains these pores, but they are 
of a very fine character, and simply sealing them up 
with a liquid filler will enable one to produce a fine, 
smooth finish, which we shall consider farther on. 

I will now return to the open or wide-grained wood, 
which requires more attention and care than the 
closer-grained wood, if the same results are expected. 
There are many things that will serve the purpose of 
fillers and make pretty fair work; among these may 
be mentioned china clay, silver white and corn-starch; 
the best of which is probably the last named. This is 
well adapted to the work, being equally useful with 
light, or when colored with dark wood; one fault with 
it is that it never hardens. China clay — the English 
is the best — makes an exceedingly good fillei; it is 
light in color, very fine and dries as hard as cement. 

There are a hundred ways of preparing fillers for 
use, and nearly as many different materials for making 
them; we would recommend, however, that wherever 
it is possible, Wheeler's patent wood filler be used; 
though we are aware that in many cases it may not 
be advisable to use it, and to meet these rare conditions 
the following mixtures may be substituted. 

A filler should be so mixed that the greater portion 
of the vehicle will penetrate into the wood, leaving 
the pigment on the surface to be rubbed into the 
pores, and still retain enough combining property to 
form a hard and impenetrable surface. This depends 
entirely upon the proportions of the vehicles employed, 
and different pigments require different quantities 



HARDWOOD FINISHER n 

of vehicle. Proceed with the mixing by filling the 
pot two-thirds full of the dry pigment, then add 
boiled linseed oil, producing the consistency of putty, 
then dilute with about one part japan and two parts 
turpentine. Should it be required to keep the wood 
as light as possible, replace the boiled oil with raw, 
using a smaller quantity, but a little more japan. For 
all light wood the light japan should be preferred, 
although there are many who never use anything but 
the common brown. Naphtha can also be employed in 
place of the turpentine, somewhat reducing the 
expense; but, as naphtha evaporates much faster, it 
prevents the operator from covering an extended 
surface without running the risk of having it dry 
hard. This causes difficulty at "rubbing it in" and 
wiping off the surplus, although "wiping off" should 
not proceed until the filler has flatted— or, at least, 
"set." This to a certain extent the operator can 
accelerate or retard by omitting or adding a small 
quantity of oil, keeping in view the fact that the 
smaller the quantity of oil used, the lighter colored, 
but the less durable, will be the finish. 

Oil is sometimes used as a filler, but its use is not 
recommended; applied directly to the wood, its effect 
is to swell the fibers, or "raise the grain," which 
remains in that condition until the oil becomes entirely 
dry or disappears. During this time the fibers are 
gradually shrinking, and consequently moving or 
checking the varnish. The qualities essential to a 
good filler are that it shall readily enter the porous 
portion of the wood, and shall very soon harden and 
render the wood impervious to the varnish, which 
should lie smoothly upon the surface, giving brilliancy 
and effect to the natural beauty of the wood; and that 



12 THE UP-TO-DATE 

it shall not raise the grain of the wood; and that it 
shall not change the color of the wood. These con- 
ditions are satisfactorily fulfilled by few of the home- 
made fillers ordinarily used in shops, and while I give 
a number of recipes, my readers are advised that they 
will obtain better satisfaction, at less cost, by purchas- 
ing some of the patent fillers now coming into general 
use. In these fillers very little oil is used and a large 
amount of dryers, so that the wood becomes perfectly 
dry and hard in a few hours, preventing any swelling 
or shrinking of the fibers of the wood after the varnish 
is applied. The following fillers sjiould be allowed to 
dry until quite hard. A period of about eight hours is 
usually sufficient, but it is better to let the work stand 
for twenty-four hours before touching it with sand- 
paper. In applying a filler it should always be borne 
in mind that the substance of wood consists of a 
multitude of small tubes lying side by side. These 
tubes or cells are not continuous from top to bottom 
of the tree, but are comparatively short and taper out 
to points so that they are thickest in the middle. Most 
of the common woods have the walls of these tubes so 
thin that liquid is readily absorbed by them and carried 
into the substance for some distance. Different kinds 
of wood differ much in the shape and arrangement of 
these cells. In filling the pores the first step is taken 
in providing an absolutely smooth surface. We trust 
mainly to mechanical force in rubbing in, aided by the 
absorptive powers of the wood. Formerly successive 
varnishings and rubbings and scrapings took much 
time, and when they were done, the final finish had 
still to be applied, but the whole process has now been 
bimplified, by using fillers. 

The careful workman will not leave "great daubs" 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 13 

of superfluous filler here and there on the work, but 
will see that all corners and heads and quirks of 
mouldings are well cleaned off before it gets too hard 
to remove easily, and should there be any nail holes — 
which there ought not to be— he will have them filled 
with properly colored putty or cement and nicely 
smoothed down before he makes any attempt to put 
on his finishing coats. 

Among the many home-made fillers I have 
endeavored to select the best. 

Walnut Filler. — For Medium and Cheap Work. Ten 
lb. bolted English whiting, 3 lb. dry burnt umber, 4 
lb. Vandyke brown, 3 lb. calcined plaster, ^ lb. 
Venetian red, i gal. boiled linseed oil, >^ gal. spirits 
turpentine, I quart black japan. Mix well and apply 
with brush; rub well with excelsior or tow, clean off 
with rags. 

Walnut Filler.— For Imitation Wax-Finish. Five lb. 
bolted whiting, i lb. calcined plaster, 6 oz.- calcined 
magnesia, i oz. dry burnt umber, I oz. French yellow, 
I quart raw linseed oil, i quart benzine spirits, ^ pint 
very thin white shellac. Mix well and apply with a 
brush. Rub well in and clean off with rags. Before 
using the above filling, give the work one coat of white 
shellac. When dry, sandpaper down and apply the 
filler. 

Walnut Filler.— For First-Class Work. Three lb. 
burnt umber ground in oil, i lb. burnt sienna ground 
in oil, I quart spirits of turpentine, i pint brown japan. 
Mix well and apply with a brush; sandpaper well; 
clean off with tow and rags. This gives a beautiful 
chocolate color to the wood. 

Filler for Light Woods.— Five lb. bolted English 
whiting, 3 lb. calcined plaster, i lb. corn-starch, 3 oz. 



14 THE UP-TO-DATE 

calcined magnesia, ^ gallon raw linseed oil, i quart 
spirits of turpentine, i quart brown japan, and 
sufficient French yellow to tinge the white. Mix well 
and apply with a brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, 
and clean off with rags. 

Filler for Cherry. — Five lb. bolted English whiting, 2 
lb. calcined plaster, i^ oz. dry burnt sienna, i oz. 
Venetian red, i quart boiled linseed oil, I pint spirits 
of turpentine, i pint brown japan. Mix well, rub in 
with excelsior or tow and clean off with rags. 

Filler for Oak. — Five lb. bolted English whiting, 2 
lb. calcined plaster, i oz. dry burnt sienna, >^ oz. dry 
French yellow, I quart raw linseed oil, I pint benzine 
spirits, ^ pint white shellac. Mix well, apply with 
brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with 
rag. 

Filler for Rosewood. — Six lb. bolted English whiting, 
2 lb. calcined plaster, I lb. rose pink, 2 oz. Venetian 
red, y^ lb. Vandyke brown, ^ lb. brandon red, I gallon 
boiled linseed oil, ^ gallon spirits of turpentine, I 
quart black japan. Mix well, apply with brush, rub 
in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags. 

Another.— Stir boiled oil and corn-starch into a very 
thick paste; add a little japan, and reduce with turpen- 
tine, but add no color for light ash. For dark ash and 
chestnut use a little raw sienna; for walnut, burnt 
umber, add a small quantity of Venetian red; for bay 
wood, burnt sienna. In no case use more color than is 
required to overcome the white appearance of the 
starch, unless it is wished to stain the wood. The 
filler is worked with brush and rags in the usual 
manner. Let it dry forty-eight hours, or until it is in 
condition to rub down with No. sandpaper without 
much gumming up, and if an extra fine finish is acsirea, 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 15 

fill again with the same materials, using less oil, but 
more of japan and turpentine. 

Another. — Take three papers corn-starch, one quart 
boiled linseed oil, two quarts turpentine, one-quarter 
pint japan; cut in half the turpentine before mixing; 
it will not cut perfectly otherwise. For dark woods 
add burnt umber to color. When nearly dry, rub off 
with cloths. The above mixture must be used fresh, 
as it is of no value after it is four or five days old. 
The cloths used in rubbing as above mentioned should 
be destroyed immediately after use, as spontaneous 
combustion is likely to ensue from the ingredients 
employed. As a filler of wood to be stained, apply 
French plaster of Paris, mixed as a creamy paste with 
water, and after rubbing in, clean any surplus off; or 
use whiting finely powdered, or white lead slacked 
with painters' drying oil, and used as a filler. Another 
process is that of oiling, then rubbing crosswise to the 
grain with a sponge dipped in thin polish composed 
of melted beeswax, resin, and shellac, and smoothing 
the surface, when dry, with pumice-stone, or fine glass, 
paper. Embody the work a second time with thicker 
polish, or a mixture of polish and varnish. The 
rubbers will work easily with half the quantity of oil 
which is ordinarily used. This second body should be 
rubbed very smooth with moist putty. 

In the use of any filler, care must be taken in the 
selection of color, for the employment of a light 
colored filler on dark wood or vice versa would result 
in gross defacement, as the lighter color would show 
at the pores of the wood in the one case, and the 
darker in the other. Therefore, to avoid this, the filler 
should be as near as possible the color of the wood to 
be filled. 



i6 THE UP-TO-DATE 

As a general thing, paint manufacturers who do not 
make fillers a specialty use opaque colors to stain their 
filler, as it requires a less quantity. This will do 
sometimes, but not always. But those which give to 
the wood a clear and bright appearance, and there- 
fore produce the best results, are stained with trans- 
parent colors; those chiefly employed are burnt 
umber and sienna, Venetian red, Vandyke brown and 
charcoal black, the charcoal being ground fine in oil, 
while the others can be used dry and according to the 
following recipes with good results: 

In mixing any or all dark fillers the same pigments 
used for the light (previously described) should be 
kept for a basis, with sufficient coloring to stain it to 
the desired depth of shade. 

Filler for walnut is very often stained with burnt 
umber; this is reddish in hue and gives to the wood a 
pleasing effect. Others use Venetian red, darkened 
somewhat with lampblack; this is rather opaque, and 
tends to deaden the color of the wood. There is 
another article — namely, Vandyke brown — which gives 
fair results. In order to obtain a rich effect, the filler 
should be made considerably darker than the wood 
when new. 

Fillers for mahogany, cherry, California redwood, 
and other woods of similar shade, should be stained 
with bunrt sienna, as they should be finished very clear. 
It is well to know that charcoal black and Venetian red 
will give the desired shade for any dark-colored wood 
in common use or for all colors in antique, but it does 
not show up quite as clear as some other combinations. 

For rosewood, charcoal as a stain will suffice, and 
for vanilla or Brazil-wood the use of rose-pink will give 
g'ood results. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 17 

The methods of mixing these fillers are quite 
numerous. It is impossible to give the proportions 
definitely, owing to the strength of the colors or the 
transparency of the chief ingredient, but one cannot 
go astray by following the preceding rules. 

Mix the light pigment to a paste with boiled oil, 
which must be well stirred up. Then in another pot 
mix a quantity of the colored pigment with turpentine 
or naphtha; and when thoroughly "cut," or dissolved, 
add sufficient of it to the light to give the shade 
required. After this is obtained, dilute with turpentine 
or naphtha and japan, as directed in mixing light 
filler. This applies to all colors except black, which 
is seldom obtained finely ground unless in oil, and 
properly thinned down. 

There are many finishers and firms who exclusively 
use manufactured fillers, and in consequence meet with 
many difficulties as to the shade they require, as 
different manufacturers use different colors to stain 
their filler. But this difficulty can be overcome by a 
few experiments with the above-named stains. 

As the foregoing gives pretty nearly all the fillers in 
general use, with the exception of some of the manu- 
factured mineral preparations of which I will have 
more to say further on, I will now proceed to describe 
the method of application. The secret of this is to 
do the work well, quickly and economically. These 
points are dealt with in the following: 

Have your filler mixed to the consistency of 
ordinary lead paint; then apply to the prepared 
surface of the wood with a pound brush, or, what is 
still better, a 3-0 or 4-0 oval chisel varnish brush. In 
applying the filler it is not necessary to cover all the 
^mall beads and carvings; and if the filler be light, 



t8 THE UP-TO-DATE 

better avoid coating them at all; and if dark or 
antique, stain them with a little of the filler, 
much reduced with spirits of turpentine. For 
this purpose have at hand a small pot with a 
small fitch or sash tool. 

By not filling the beads and carvings, the 
varnish is not so liable to run down in them, 
although sufficient remains to produce a finish 
equal to the balance of the surface. 

After enough surface has been covered with 
the filler, so that what has been first applied 
begins to flatten, the process of wiping should 
immediately begin, using for that purpose 
either a rag or a handful of waste or excelsior. 
If the wood is very open grained, waste is 
preferable. With a piece of this that has 
previously been used and is pretty well sup- 
plied with filler, rub crosswise of the grain, 
rather rubbing it into the grain than wiping it 
off. After the whole surface has been gone 
over in this way, take a clean piece of waste 
or rag (never use excelsior for wiping clean) 
and wipe the surface perfectly clean and free 
from filler, using a wooden pick (Fig. 105), the 
point of which has been covered with a rag or 
waste, to clean out the corners, beads, etc. It 
is well to give these picks some attention, as 
a person once accustomed to certain tools can 
accomplish more and better work than with 
tools that feel strange in his hands; therefore. 
Fig 105^^^^ finisher should furnish his own pick. As 
to their construction, these are best made 
from second-growth hickory, which can be procured at 
any carriage repair shop, such as old spokes, broken 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



19 



felloes, etc. They are made eight incnes in length, 
half inch oval at one end and tapering down to the 
point at the other. Sharpen the oval end like a cold 
chisel, then smooth with sandpaper, which iihould also 
be used to sharpen the tool when the same becomes 
worn dull. 

This picking out of the filler from beads, etc., can 
be accelerated by the use of picking brushes, several 
of which I show in Fig. 106, and which are manu^ 
factured especially for that purpose, but it is nol 




Fig. 106 



advisable to use them on very coarsely grained wood, 
as they scrub the filler out. of the pores. 

There are several fillers used wliich do not require 
this picking and scrubbing. One is a liquid filler used 
chiefly for carriage finishing; but it can be used suc- 
cessfully on butternut, bird's-eye maple, curly maple, 
satinwood, hickory, etc. It is made from gum and 
oil. Another is a filler made from finely ground 
pumice-stone, mixed as other fillers. It is applied 
with a brush, and must be left to dry at least twenty- 
four hours; it is then sandpapered smooth, when an oil 



20 THE UP-TO-DATE 

varnish is applied, rendering it completely transparent. 
This last can be used only upon light wood. 

The workman, as a matter of course, will under- 
stand that different woods require slightly different 
treatment, and the finer-grained woods, among which 
are the pines, maples, cedars and poplars, of different 
varieties, and birch, cherry, beech, sycamore, white 
box, satinwoqd, etc., require no filling, not that a 
filling would prove detrimental to the finish — except 
upon stained work or white holly, which in order to 
maintain a clear color should never be filled — but, from 
the condition of all fine wood, it is superfluous, and 
only causes unnecessary labor and expense. At this 
point it will be convenient to pause to consider the 
subject of mineral or prepared wood-fillers. 

A great deal of time and money have been wasted 
in attempting to make good fillers, to no purpose, and 
a great variety — as I have shown — of substances, as 
chalk, plaster of Paris, corn-starch, etc., etc., have 
been mixed with various vehicles and rubbed into the 
wood with but indifferent success. Most of these 
compounds labor under the disadvantages of forming 
chemical compounds with the oil and consequently 
they shrink very much on drying, so that though the 
surface may appear smooth when they are first put on, 
waves and hollows make their appearance as they dry. 
These waves, having round edges, are difficult to fill, 
the second coat building up as much or more upon the 
level spaces as in the hollows. It sometimes seems 
almost impossible with these fillers in the latter coats 
to make the hollows hold any substance, the filler 
clinging chiefly to the surfaces. 

I have thought it necessary to show how the ordinary 
or home-made fillers act, and fail, in order to show by 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 21 

contrast how much easier it is to work efficiently with 
the mineral fillers. The mineral quartz, when mixed 
with oil, probably shrinks less in drying than any other 
similar known mixture. If a surface of wood be 
covered with this and then rubbed, the sharp and 
angular particles of the silica imbed themselves in the 
pores of the wood, closing them up, while the oil 
cements them fast. This is the foundation of 
Wheeler's wood filler, which we recommend for use 
by all wood finishers. When the pores have been 
filled with silica, and are cemented fast by the proper 
mixture of gums and oils, the difficult part of the work 
is done. 

After a good surface has been made upon the article 
it is ready for the filler, which is to be selected 
according to the color desired. In putting the filler 
on, it is thinned with turpentine until about like flowing 
varnish, and is applied with a brush. Only so much of 
the surface is covered as can be cleaned off before it 
hardens. When it has set so that the gloss has left the 
surface, it is at once rubbed off with excelsior or 
shavings, going across the grain with the strokes. If 
the filler dries too fast or too light, a little raw linseed 
oil may be used in it. 

Perhaps a better material for rubbing off than 
excelsior is hemp, or "flax tow." At any rate, the 
work should be finished with some finer material than 
excelsior. 

For a nicer job the filler is rubbed in with a rubber, 
made by gluing a piece of sole or belt leather on the 
face of a block of wood and trimming the edges flush 
with the block. The rubbing is done after the filler 
has set and before it is cleaned off. If it dries off too 
light, a little white japan may be added on nice work. 



22 THE UP-TO-DATE 

The light-colored filler should be used on all work 
where light and dark woods are used together. The 
filling, it must be understood, is done by the silica, 
which will often be found in the shape of a sediment 
in the bottom of the mixture. Eight hours is generally 
considered a sufficient time for the filler to dry. 

When the work with the filler is done, the surface of 
the wood ought to be like so much ground glass. Such 
portions of the wood as show a solid grain need very 
little filler. On Georgia pine, after the filler is dry, a 
little rubbing in the direction of the grain with very 
fine sandpaper is an advantage. If the filler has been 
properly used the desired results will be obtained with 
little labor. 

The wood is now in a condition to receive the final 
coatings. Whether the work is to be polished or 
"dead finished," do not employ shellac or "French 
polish." If a "dead" surface is wanted, wax finish is 
easily put on, and as easily rubbed to a good surface. 
Several manufacturers in this country prepare a wax 
finish, which is a convenient preparation of wax and 
gums, and can be applied with a brush and then rubbed 
down with a woolen cloth, tied up to make a hard 
rubber, until a fine, lusterless surface is obtained. 
With mahogany and similar woods this greatly 
improves the color of the wood. When this has dried, 
which will be in the course of a few hours, the work is 
^-eady for use. The wax finish, like many of the 
furniture creams, has the advantage that" it can be put 
on in a few minutes at any time to brighten up work 
when it has become dull. A piece of work prepared in 
this way, after four operations, will present as fine an 
appearance as the best cabinet work found in the 
furniture stores. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 23 

The materials which have been described, it will be 
noticed, are both manufactured articles. The prepared 
filler is indispensable; the wax finish can be made by 
mixing together, by the aid of heat, white wax and 
spirits of turpentine until they are of the consistency 
of thick paste. Another wax finish is made of bees- 
wax, spirits of turpentine and linseed oil in equal parts. 
The addition of two drams of alkanet root to every 
twenty ounces of turpentine darkens and enriches the 
color. The root is to be put into a little bag and 
allowed to stand in the turpentine until it is sufficiently 
colored. 

An altogether more durable surface can be made by 
a little change in the treatment. When the wood is 
filled, instead of applying the wax, take some hard 
oil finish, "Luxeberry," a preparation manufactured 
in Detroit, Mich., and put it on with a brush precisely 
like varnish. The coat should not be too heavy, 
especially on vertical surfaces, and the brush used 
ought to be a good one. This material gives a most 
brilliant- polish. By rubbing it down with a woolen 
cloth and pumice-stone powder it can also be made 
dull. Hard-oil finish does not spot with hot or cold 
water, is slightly elastic and is not injured by pretty 
severe soaking in water. It gets hard in twelve hours 
or less in warm weather, and overnight in winter time. 
It is one of the best surfaces which can be used, and 
has the advantage of working very well in the hands 
of one who is not an expert in the art of finishing wood 
or handling varnish. It will make a very fair surface 
applied direct to the unfilled wood, in which case it is 
a good substitute for shellac. 

Wax finish has the advantage that scratches can be 
easily repaired without sending to the cabinetmakei 



24 THK iJP-TO-DATE 

or the painter. Here a word of advice to the 
carpenter who d>es any work of this character may 
save him some trouble and make way for the further 
use of the same kind of finish. When the woodwork 
of a house is treated in this way, be sure to leave a 
little bottle of the wax polish with the housekeeper, 
with directions as to the method of using it. In send- 
ing out a "what-not," bookcase, or any other article 
of similar kind, put up a little bottle of the polish and 
show the owner, or, preferably the lady of the house, 
how to repair any little scratch and make the work 
look "as good as new." The fresh appearance of the 
work will be a good advertisement, while it will pre- 
vent complaints and dissatisfaction that often follow 
the use of work which, when injured, cannot be 
restored. 

It may be said that either of the methods of finishing 
involves a great deal of labor. This is true; but the 
amount is not much greater than is needed for three 
coats of paint, and the cost of the paint would probably 
be more than the cost of the finish. The labor in one 
case can be of a cheap character, and in the other an 
experienced painter must be employed. The profit 
upon the "dead finish" can go into the pocket of the 
carpenter, while that of the painting must in any event 
be divided between the carpenter and painter, or 
belong to the latter altogether, who is, after all, the 
proper person to do the work. 

I have now said about all that is necessary in the 
matter of "fillers" and "filling," but, as it sometimes 
happens that the old system of "sizing" has to be 
resorted to for certain kinds of work, I give herewith 
a formula for its construction and use: 

Size of different kinds is sometimes applied to th^ 



H/^Kunr.^OOD FINISHER 25 

surface of woo( *:o p event absorption of the varnish. 
The kind of matv^rial used for the size is not important, 
the object being only to prevent absorption by a very 
thin coat of some substance not soluble in the varnish. 
^For dark-colored wood, thin size, made by reducing 
ordinary glue with water, is generally used; but for 
lighter-colored surfaces a white size is used, which is 
prepared by boiling white kid or other leather or 
parchment-cuttings in water for a few hours, or until 
it forms a thin, jelly-like substance, which is reduced 
with water to a thin consistency, and used in a tepid 
state. Sometimes solutions of isinglass or tragacanth 
are employed in like manner. Unlike the best fillers, 
sizes of any kind do not improve the finish, and are 
sometimes a positive detriment to it. They are used 
solely as an economy to reduce the quantity of the 
varnish needed; - "* *heir use is not recommended for 
the best work. 

WOOD-STAINING GENERALLY 

There are many cases where an article constructed 
of wood may be more conveniently and suitably 
finished by staining and polishing than by painting. 
The practice of staining woods is much less common 
in America and England than on the Continent, wher^ 
workmen, familiar with the different washes, produce 
the most delicate tones of color and shade. Wood is 
often stained to imitate darker and dearer varieties, 
but more legitimately to improve the natural 
appearance by heightening and bringing out the 
original markings, or by giving a definite color with^ 
out covering the surface and hiding the nature of the 
material by coats of paint. The best woods for stain- 
ing are those of close, even texture, as pear and cherry, 



26 THE UP-TO-DATE 

birch, beech, and maple, though softer and coarser 
kinds may be treated with good effect. The wood 
!;hould be dried, and if an even tint is desired, its 
surface planed and sandpapered. All the stains 
should, if possible, be applied hot, as they thus pene- 
trate more deeply into the pores. If the wood is to be 
varnished, and not subjected to much handling, almost 
any of the brilliant mordants used in wool and cotton 
dyeing may be employed in an alcoholic solution; 
but when thus colored it has an unnatural appearance, 
and is best used on small surfaces only, for inlaying, 
etc. The ebonized wood, of late years so much in 
vogue, is in many respects the most unsatisfactory of 
the stains, as the natural character and markings are 
completely blotted out, and it shows the least scratch 
or rubbing. Sometimes, in consequence of the quality 
of the wood under treatment, it must be freed from its 
natural colors by a preliminary bleaching process. To 
this end it is saturated as completely as possible with 
a clear solution of 17^ oz. chloride of lime and 2 oz. 
soda crystals, in io>^ pints water. In this liquid the 
wood is steeped for ^ hour, if it does not appear to 
injure its texture. After this bleaching, it is immersed 
in a solution of sulphurous acid to remove all traces 
of chlorine, and then washed in pure water. The 
sulphurous acid, which may cling to the wood in spite 
of washing, does not appear to injure it, nor alter the 
colors which are applied. 

Black. — (i) Obtained by boiling together blue 
Brazil-wood, powdered gall-apples, and alum, in rain 
or river water, until it becomes black. This liquid is 
then filtered through a fine organdie, and the objects 
painted with a new brush before the decoction has 
cooled, and this repeated until the wood appears of 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 27 

a fine black color. It is then coated with the follow- 
ing liquid: A mixture of iron filings, vitriol, and 
vinegar is heated (without boiling), and left a few 
days to settle. Even i{ the wood is black enough, yet, 
for the sake of durability, it must be coated with a 
solution of alum and nitric acid, mixed with a little 
verdigris; then a decoction of gall-apples and logwood 
dyes is used to give it a deep black. A decoction may 
be made of brown Brazil-wood with alum in rain- 
water, without gall-apples; the wood is left standing 
in it for some days in a moderately warm place, and 
to it merely iron filings in strong vinegar are added, 
and both are boiled with the wood over a gentle fire. 
For this purpose soft pear-wood is chosen, which is 
preferable to all others for black staining. 

(2) I oz. nut-gall broken into small pieces, put into 
barely ^ pint vinegar, which must be contained in an 
open vessel; let stand for about j^ hour; add i oz. 
steel filings; the vinegar will then commence efTer- 
vescing; cover up, but not sufficient to exclude all air. 
The solution must then stand for about 2^ hours, when 
it will be ready for use. Apply the solution with a 
brush or piece of rag to the article, then let it remain 
until dry; if not black enough, coat it until it is— each 
time, of course, letting it remain sufficiently long to 
dry thoroughly. After the solution is made, keep it 
in a closely corked bottle. 

(3) One gal. water, i lb. logwood chips, y^ lb. black 
copperas, >^ lb. extract of logwood, ^ lb. indigo blue, 
2 oz. lampblack. Put these into an iron pot and boil 
them over a slow fire. When the mixture is cool, 
strain it through a cloth, add ^ oz. nut-gall. It is 
then ready for use. This is a good black for all kinds 
of cheap work. 



28 THE UP-TO-DATE 

(4) Two hundred fifty parts of Campeachy wood, 
2000 water, and 30 copper sulphate; the wood is 
allowed to stand 24 hours in this liquor, dried in the 
air, and finally immersed in iron nitrate liquor at 4° B. 

(5) Boil S% oz. logwood in 70 oz. water and i oz. 
blue stone, and steep the wood for 24 hours. Take 
out, expose to the air for a long time, and then steep 
for 12 hours in a solution of iron niirace ac 4° B. If 
the black is not fine, steep again in the logwood liquor. 

(6) It is customary to employ the clear liquid 
obtained by treating 2 parts powdered galls with 15 
parts wine, and mixing the filtered liquid with a 
solution of iron protosulphate. Reimann recommends 
the use of water in the place of wine. 

(7) Almost any wood can be dyed black by the 
following means: Take logwood extract such as is 
found in commerce, powder i oz., and boil it in ^}( 
pints of water; when the extract is dissolved, add I dr. 
potash yellow chromate (not the bichromate), and 
agitate the whole. The operation is now finished, and 
the liquid will serve equally well to write with or to 
stain wood. Its color is a very fine dark purple, which 
becomes a pure black when applied to the wood. 

(8) For black and gold furniture, procure I lb. log- 
wood chips, add 2 qt. water, boil I hour, brush the 
liquor in hot, when dry give another coat. Now 
procure I oz. green copperas, dissolve it in warm 
water, well mix, and brush the solution over the wood; 
it will bring out a fine black; but the wood should be 
dried outdoors, as the black sets better. A common 
stove brush is best. If polisn cannot oe used, proceed 
as follows: Fill up the grain with black glue — i.e., 
thin glue and lampblack — brushed over the parts 
accessible (not in the carvings); when dry, paper down 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 29 

with fine paper. Now procure, say, a gill of French 
polish, in which mix I oz. best ivory black, or gas- 
black is best, well shake it until quite a thick pasty 
mass, procure ^ pint brown hard varnish, pour a 
portion into a cup, add enough black polish to make it 
quite dark, then varnish the work; two thin coats are 
better than one thick coat. The first coat may be 
sandpapered down where accessible, as it will look 
better. A coat of glaze over the whole gives a piano 
finish. N.B. — Enough varnish should be mixed at 
once for the job to make it all one color — i.e., good 
black. 

(9) For table. Wash the surface of table with 
liquid ammonia, applied with a piece of rag; the 
varnish will then peel off like a skin; afterwards 
smooth down with fine sandpaper. Mix y^ lb. 
lampblack with I qt. hot water, adding a little glue 
size; rub this stain v/ell in; let it dry before sand- 
papering it; smooth again. Mind you do not work 
through the stain. Afterwards apply the following 
black varnish with a broad, fine camel-hair brush: Mix 
a small quantity of gas-black with the \'arnish. If 
one coat of varnish is not sufficient, apply a second 
one after the first is dry. Gas-black can be obtained 
by boiling a pot over the gas, letting the pot nearly 
touch the burner, when a fine jet black will form on 
the bottom, which remove, and mix with the varnish. 
Copper vessels give the best black; it may be collected 
from barbers' warming pots. 

(10) Black-board wash, or "liquid slating." — {a) 
Four pints 95 per cent alcohol, 8 oz. shellac, 12 dr. 
lampblack, 20 dr. ultramarine blue, 4 oz. powdered 
rotten stone, 6 oz. powdered pumice, (b) i gal. 95 pel 
cent alcohol, i lb. shellac, 8 oz. best ivory black, 5 oz. 



30 THE UP-TO-DATE 

finest flour emery, 4 oz. ultramarine blue. Make a 
perfect solution of the shellac in the alcohol before 
adding the other articles. To apply the slating, have 
the surface smooth and perfectly free from grease; 
well shake the bottle containing the preparation, and 
pour out a small quantity only into a dish, and apply 
it with a new flat varnish brush as rapidly as possible. 
Keep the bottle well corked, and shake it up each 
time before pouring out the liquid, (c) Lampblack 
and flour of emery mixed with spirit varnish. No 
more lampblack and flour of emery should be used than 
are sufficient to give the required black abrading sur- 
face. The thinner the mixture the better. Lamp- 
black should first be ground with a small quantity of 
spirit varnish or alcohol to free it from lumps. The 
composition should be applied to the smoothly planed 
surface of a board with a common paint brush. Let it 
become thoroughly dry and hard before it is used. 
Rub it down with pumice if too rough, {d) j4 gal. 
shellac varnish, 5 oz. lampblack, 3 oz. powdered iron 
ore or emery; if too thick, thin with alcohol. Give 
3 coats of the composition, allowing each to dry before 
putting on the next; the first may be of shellac and 
lampblack alone, (e) To make i gal. of the paint for 
a blackboard, take 10 oz. pulverized and sifted pumice, 
6 oz. powdered rotten stone (infusorial silica), % lb. 
good lampblack, and alcohol enough to form with 
these a thick paste, which must be well rubbed and 
ground together. Then dissolve 14 oz. shellac in the 
remainder of the gallon of alcohol by digestion and 
agitation, and finally mix this varnish and the paste 
together. It is applied to the board with a brush, care 
being taken to keep the paint well stirred, so that the 
pumice will not settle. Two coats are usually necessary. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 51 

The first should be allowed to dry thoroughly before 
the second is put on, the latter being applied so as not 
to disturb or rub off any portion of the first. One 
gallon of this paint will ordinarily furnish 2 coats for 60 
sq. yd. of blackboard. When the paint is to be put 
on plastered walls, the wall should be previously 
coated with glue size — i lb. glue, i gal. water, enough 
lampblack to color; put on hot. (/) Instead of the 
alcohol mentioned in b, take a solution of borax in 
water; dissolve the shellac in this and color with 
lampblack. (^) Dilute soda silicate (water-glass) with 
an equal bulk of water, and add sufficient lampblack 
to color it. The lampblack should be ground with 
water and a little of the silicate before being added to 
the rest of the liquid 

(11) 17.5 oz. Brazil-wood and 0.525 oz. alum are 
boiled for i hour in 2.75 lb. water. The colored 
liquor is then filtered from the boiled Brazil-wood, 
and applied several times boiling hot to the wood to 
be stained. This will assume a violet color. This 
violet color can be easily changed into black by 
preparing a solution of 2.1 oz. iron filings, and 1.05 
oz. common salt in 17.5 oz. vinegar. The solution is 
filtered, and applied to the wood, which will then 
acquire a beautiful black color. 

(12) 8.75 oz. gall-nuts and 2.2 lb. logwood are 
boiled in 2.2 lb. rain-water for I hour in a copper 
boiler. The decoction is then filtered through a cloth, 
and applied several times while it is still warm to the 
article of wood to be stained. In this manner a beauti- 
ful black will be obtained. 

(13) This is prepared by dissolving 0.525 oz. log- 
wood extract in 2.2 lb. hot rain-water, and by adding 
to the logwood solution 0.035 o^- potash chromate. 



32 THE UP-TO-DATE 

When this is applied several times to the article to be 
stained, a dark brown color will first be obtained. To 
change this into a deep chrome-black, the solution of 
iron filings, common salt, and vinegar, given under 
(ii) is applied to the wood, and the desired color will 
be produced. 

(14) Several coats of alizarine ink are applied to 
the wood, but every coat must be thoroughly dry 
before the other is put on. When the articles are dry, 
the solution of iron filings, common salt, and vinegar, 
as given in (11), is applied to the wood, and a very 
durable black will be obtained. 

(15) According to Herzog, a black stain for wood, 
giving to it a color resembling ebony, is obtained by 
treating the wood with two fluids, one after the other. 
The first fluid to be used consists of a very concentrated 
solution of logwood, and to 0.35 oz. of this fluid are 
added 0.017 oz. alum. The other fluid is obtained by 
digesting iron filings in vinegar. After the wood has 
been dipped in the first hot fluid, it is allowed to dry, 
and is then treated with the second fluid, several times 
if necessary. 

(16) Sponge the wood with a solution of aniline 
chlorhydrate in water, to which a small quantity of 
copper chloride is added. Allow it to dry, and go 
over it with a solution of potassium bichromate. 
Repeat the process two or three times, and the wood 
will take a fine black color. 

Blue. — (i) Powder a little Prussian blue, and mix to 
the consistency of paint with beer; brush it on the 
wood, and when dry size it with glue dissolved in 
boiling water; apply lukewarm, and let this dry also; 
iben varnish or French polish. 

(2) Indigo solution, or a concentrated hot solution 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 33 

of blue vitriol, followed by a dip in a solution of 
washing soda. 

(3) Prepare as for violet, and dye with aniline blue. 

(4) A beautiful blue stain is obtained by gradually 
stirring 0.52 oz. finely powdered indigo into 4.2 oz. 
sulphuric acid of 60 per cent, and by exposing this 
mixture for 12 hours to a temperature of J'j'^ F. (25° 
C). The mass is then poured into 11-13.2 lb. rain- 
water, and filtered through felt. This filtered water 
is applied several times to the wood, until the desired 
color has been obtained. The more the solution is 
diluted with water, the lighter will be the color. 

(5) 1.05 oz. finest indigo carmine, dissolved in 8.75 
oz. water, applied several times to the articles to be 
stained. A very fine blue is in this manner obtained. 

(6) 3.5 oz. French verdigris are dissolved in 3.5 oz, 
urine and 8.75 oz. wine vinegar. The solution is 
filtered and applied to the article to be stained. Then 
a solution of 2.1 oz. potash carbonate in 8.75 oz. rain- 
water is prepared, and the article colored with the 
verdigris is brushed over with this solution until the 
desired blue color makes its appearance. 

(7) The newest processes of staining wood blue are 
those with aniline colors. The following colors may 
be chosen for the staining liquor: Bleu de Lyon 
(reddish blue), bleu de lumiere (pure blue), light blue 
(greenish blue). These colors are dissolved in the 
proportion of I part coloring substance to 30 of spirit 
of wine, and the wood is treated with the solution. 

Brown. — (i) Various tones may be produced by 
mordanting with potash chromate, and applying a 
decoction of fustic, of logwood, or of peachwood. 

(2) Sulphuric acid, more or less diluted according to 
the intensity of the color to be produced, is applied 



34 THE UP-TO-DATE 

with a brush to the wood, previously cleaned and 
dried. A lighter or darker brown stain is obtained, 
according to the strength of the acid. When the acid 
has acted sufficiently, its further action is arrested by 
the application of ammonia. 

(3) Tincture of iodine yields a fine brown color- 
ation, which, however, is not permanent unless the air 
is excluded by a thick coating of polish. 

(4) A simple brown wash is ^ oz. alkanet root, I 
oz. aloes, i oz. dragons' blood, digested in i lb. alcohol. 
This is applied after the wood has been washed with 
aqua regia, but is, like all the alcoholic washes, not 
very durable. 

Ebonizing. — (i) Boil i lb. logwood chips I hour in 2 
qt. water; brush the hot liquor over the work to be 
stained, lay aside to dry; when dry give another coat, 
still using it hot. When the second coat is dry, brush 
the following liquor over the work: i oz. green 
copperas to i qt. hot water, to be used when the 
copperas is all dissolved. It will bring out an intense 
black when dry. For staining, the work must not be 
dried by fire, but in the sunshine, if possible; if not, 
in a warm room, away from the fire. To polish this 
work, first give a coating of very thin glue size, and 
when quite dry paper off very lightly with No. o paper, 
only just enough to render smooth, but not to remove 
the black stain. Then make a rubber of wadding 
about the size of a walnut, moisten the rubber with 
French polish, cover the whole tightly with a double 
linen rag, put one drop of oil on the surface, and rub 
thf^ work with a circular motion. Should the rubber 
stick it requires more polish. Previous to putting the 
French polish on the wadding pledget, it ought to be 
mvxed with the best drop black, in the proportion of 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 35 

}( oz. drop black to a gill of French polish. When the 
work has received one coat, set it aside to dry for 
about an hour. After the first coat is laid on and 
thoroughly dry, it should be partly papered off with 
No. o paper. This brings the surface even, and at the 
same time fills up the grain. Now give a second coat 
as before. Allow 24 hours to elapse, again paper off, 
and give a final coat as before. Now comes "spiriting 
off." Great care must be used here, or the work will 
be dull instead of bright. A clean rubber must be 
made, as previously described, but instead of being 
moistened with polish it must be wetted with spirits 
of wine placed in a linen rag screwed into a tight, 
even-surfaced ball, just touched on the face with a 
drop of oil, and then rubbed lightly and quickly in 
circular sweeps all over the work from top to bottom. 
One application of spirits is usually enough if sufficient 
has been placed on the rubber at the outset, but it is 
better to use rather too little than too much at a 
time, as an excess will entirely remove the polish, 
when the work will have to be polished again. Should 
this be the case, paper off at once, and commence as 
at first. It is the best way in the end. {Smither.) 

(2) Lauber dissolves extract of logwood in boiling 
water until the solution indicates 0° Beaume. Five pints 
of the solution is then mixed with 2>^ pints pyrolig- 
neous iron mordant of 10°, and yi pint acetic acid of 
2°. The mixture is heated for % hour, and is then 
ready for use. 

(3) To imitate black ebony, first wet the wood with 
a solution of logwood and copperas, boiled together 
and laid on hot. For this purpose, 2 oz. logwood 
chips with i^ oz. copperas, to I qt. water, will be 
required. When the work has become dry, wet the 



36 THE UP-TO-DATE 

surface again with a mixture of vinegar and steel 
filings. This mixture may be made by dissolving 2 oz. 
steel filings in ^ pint vinegar. When the work has 
become dry again, sandpaper down until quite smooth. 
Then oil and fill in with powdered drop black mixed in 
the filler. Work to be ebonized should be smooth and 
free from holes, etc. The work may receive a light 
coat of quick-drying varnish, and then be rubbed with 
finely pulverized pumice and linseefd oil until very 
smooth. 

(4) One gal. strong vinegar, 2 lb. extract of logwood, 
% lb. green copperas, % lb. China blue, and 2 oz. 
nut-gall. Put these in an iron pot, and boil them over 
a slow fire till they are well dissolved. When coo\, 
the mixture is ready for use. Add to the above ^ pint 
iron rust, which may be obtained by scraping rusty 
hoops, or preferably by steeping iron filings in a 
solution of acetic acid or strong vinegar. 

(5) Common ebony stain is obtained by preparing 
two baths; the first, applied warm, consists of a log- 
wood decoction, to every quart of which i dr. alum is 
added; the second is a solution of iron filings in 
vinegar. After the wood has dried from the first, the 
second is applied as often as is required. For the 
first-named bath, some substitute 16 oz. gall-nut, 4 
oz. logwood dust, and 2 oz. verdigris, boiled in a 
sufficient quantity of water. A peculiar method of 
blackening walnut is in use in Nurnberg. On one of 
the Pegnitz Islands there is a large grinding-mill, turned 
by the stream, where iron tools are sharpened and 
polished. The wood is buried for a week or more in 
the slime formed by the wheels; when dug out it is 
jet black, and so permeated by silica as to be in effect 
petrified. Another way to ebonize flat surfaces of soft 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 37 

work is to rub very fine charcoal dust into the pores 
with oil. This works beautifully with basswood and 
American whit^"^ood. A brown mahogany-like stain 
is best used on elm and walnut. Take a pint decoction 
of 2 oz. logwood in which ^ oz. barium chloride has 
been dissolred. This gives also, when diluted with 
soft water, a good oak stain to ash and chestnut. But 
the most beautiful and lasting of the browns is a con- 
centrated solution of potash permanganate (mineral 
chameleon). This is decomposed by the woody fiber, 
and forms hydrated manganese oxide, which is 
permanently fixed by the alkali. 

(6) For the fine black ebony stain, apple, pear, and 
hazel wood are the best woods to use; when stained 
black, they are most complete imitations of the 
natural ebony. For the stain take: gall-apple, 14 oz.; 
rasped logwood, 3^^ oz.; vitriol, i^ oz. ; verdigris, 
i^ oz. For the second coating a mixture of iron 
filings (pure), 3^ oz., dissolved in strong wine vinegar; 
i^ pint is warmed, and when cool the wood already 
blackened is coated 2 or 3 times with it, allowing it 
to dry after each coat. For articles which are to 
be thoroughly saturated, a mixture of i^ oz. sal- 
ammoniac, with a sufficient quantity of steel filings, h 
to be placed in a suitable vessel, strong vinegar poured 
upon it, and left for 14 days in a gently heated oven. 
A strong lye is now put into a suitable pot, to which 
is added coarsely bruised gall-apples and blue Brazil 
shavings, and exposed for the same time as the former 
to the genthi heat of an oven, which will then yield a 
good liquid. The woods are now laid in the first- 
named stain, boiled for a few hours, and left in it for 3 
days longer; they are then placed in the second stain 
and treated as in the first. If the articles are not then 



38 THE UP-TO-DATE 

thoroughly saturated, they may be once more placed 
in the first bath, and then in the second. The polish 
used for wood that is stained black should be "white" 
(colorless) polish, to which a very little finely ground 
Prussian blue should be added. 

(7) Wash with a concentrated aqueous solution of 
logwood extract several times; then with a solution 
of iron acetate of 14° B., which is repeated until a deep 
black is produced. 

(8) Beech, pear-tree, or nolly steeped in a strong 
liquor of logwood or galls. Let the wood dry, and 
wash over with solution of iron sulphate. Wash with 
clean water, and repeat if color is not dark enough. 
Polish either with black or common French polish. 

(9) Oak is immersed for 48 hours in a hot saturated 
solution of alum, and then brushed over several times 
with a logwood decoction prepared as follows: Boil i 
part best logwood with 10 of water, filter through linen, 
and evaporate at a gentle heat until the volume is 
reduced one-half. To every quart of this add 10 to 15 
drops of a saturated solution of indigo, completely 
neutral. After applying this dye to the wood, rub 
the latter with a saturated and filtered solution of 
verdigris in hot concentrated acetic acid, and repeat 
the operation until a black of the desired intensity is 
obtained. Oak thus stained is said to be a close as 
well as handsome imitation of ebony. 

(10) One lb. logwood chips, 3 pints water; boil to i 
pint; apply hot to wood; let dry; then give another 
coat; let dry slowly; sandpaper smooth; mix i gill 
vinegar with 3 tablespoonfuls iron or steel filings; let 
stand 5 hours, then brush on wood; let dry; then give 
another coat of the first. This sends the vinegar 
deeper into the wood and makes a denser black; after 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 39 

which paper smooth. Then polish with white French 
polish, as the white brings out the black purer than 
common French polish. The woods observed to take 
on the stain best are pear-tree, plane-tree, and straight- 
reeded birch; mahogany does not stain nearly so well 
as the former woods. 

(11) Get I lb. logwood chips and boil them down in 
enough water to make a good dark color; give the 
furniture 3 or 4 coats with a sponge; then put some 
rusty nails or old iron into a bottle with some vinegar, 
and when it begins to work give the furniture a coat 
of the vinegar. This, if you have well darkened it 
with the first, will give you a good black. Oil and 
polish in the usual way, rubbing down first with fine 
paper if required. A quicker way is to give the wood 
a coat of size and lampblack, and then use gas-black 
in your polish rubber 

(12) Make a strong decoction of logwood by boiling 
I lb. in I qt. water for about I hour; add thereto a 
piece of washing soda as large as a hazel-nut. Apply 
hot to the wood with a soft brush. Allow to dry, then 
paint over the wood with a solution of iron sulphate (i 
oz. to the pint of water). Allow this to dry, and 
repeat the logwood and iron sulphate for at least 3 
times, finishing off with logwood. Once more allow 
to dry thoroughly, then sandpaper off very lightly (so 
as not to remove the dye) with No. o paper. Now 
make a very thin glue size, boil in it a few chips of 
logwood and a crystal or two of iron sulphate, just 
suflRcient to make it inky black. Paint this lightly 
over the work, allow to dry once more, again sand- 
paper lightly, and finally either varnish with good 
hard white varnish, or polish with French polish and 
drop black. 



40 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Floors.— (i) Get the wood clean, have some Vandyke 
brown and burnt sienna ground in water, mix it in 
strong size, put on with a whitewash or new paint 
brush as evenly as you can. When dry, give 2 coats 
of copal or oak varnish. 

(2) If the floor is a new one, have the "border well 
washed. Polish with sandpaper, rubbing always with 
the grain of the wood. Varnish with good oak varnish, 
put coloring matter into the varnish to suit your taste, 
but umber is best; if the floor is old and blackened, 
paint it. 

(3) If old floors, you will not make much of staining 
anything but black. The floor is to be well washed 
(lime and soda is best — no soap), the dye painted on, 
and, when dry, sized over and varnished with elastic 
oak varnish. 

(4) Take 5^ lb. logwood chips, boil them briskly for 
^ hour in about 5 qt. rain-water, and strain through 
muslin. To this liquor add 6 oz. annatto (in the form 
of cake — not the roll); add also i lb. of yellow wax 
cut up in very small pieces. Place these over the 
fire, and let the wax melt, gently stirring it all the 
while. When melted, take the mixture off the fire; 
do not let it boil. Then with a paint brush lay it on 
the floor as hot as possible, brushing it always the way 
of the grain. Next day polish with a hard, flat brush 
made of hair, which may have a strap nailed to the 
back of it in which to insert the foot. The floor is 
afterwards kept bright with beeswax alone, a little of 
which is melted and put on the brush. Take care 
that the floor is thoroughly dry before commencing 
operations. 

(5) Melt some glue size in a bottle; next get a pieCv. 
of rag, roll it into a ball so that it will fit the hand 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 41 

nicely, cover this with a bit of old calico to make a 
smooth face; dip this into the size, and rub in a bit of 
brown umber; then go ahead with your floors, working 
the stuff light or dark as required. Keep the motion 
with the grain of wood; when dry, stiffen with 
polishers' glaze. 

(6) Take Judson's dyes of the color required, mix 
according to the instructions given with each bottle, 
and apply with a piece of rag, previously trying it on 
a piece of wood to see if color would suit; rub with 
sandpaper to get off any roughness that may be raised 
with the darnp, and varnish with fine, pale hard 
varnish, then slightly sandpaper and varnish again. 
Another method is to boil i lb. logwood in an old 
boiler, then apply with a piece of rag where the stain 
is required; when thoroughly dry, sandpaper as before, 
and well rub with beeswax to polish. This last proc- 
ess looks best when finished, but it requires a lot of 
elbow grease for a few months, and is extremely 
durable. To prevent the stain running where you do 
not want it, paste some stout paper. 

(7) As a general rule, i qt. of the staining liquid 
will be found sufficient to cover about 16 sq. yd. of 
flooring; but different kinds of woods absorb in 
different proportions, soft woods requiring more for 
the same space than hard woods. The colors of the 
stains are various, so that one may either choose 
ebony, walnut, mahogany, rosewood, satinwood, oak, 
medium oak, or maple, according to the paleness or 
depth of color desired. Besides this, 4 lb. of size and 
2>^ pints of the best varnish are required to finish the 
16 yd. above mentioned. The necessary purchases 
are completed by a good-sized painters' brush and a 
smaller one. The work can then be commenced. It 



42 THE UP-TO-DATE 

the wood is uneven, it must be planed, and rubbed 
down to a smooth surface; whilst the cracks and spaces 
between the boards, if very wide, may be disposed of 
by a process called "slipping," by which pieces of 
wood are fitted in. The floor must next be carefully 
washed, and allowed to dr> thoroughly. The actual 
staining may now be proceeded with. The liquid is 
poured out into a basin, and spread all over the floor 
with the aid of the large brush, the small one being 
used to do the corners and along the wainscoting, so 
that it may not be smeared. It is always best to begin 
staining at the farthest corner from the doorway, and 
work round so that one's exit may not be impeded. 
It is also a good plan to work with the window open, 
if there is no danger of much dust flying in, as the 
staining' dries so much quicker. After the floor is quite 
covered, the stainer may rest for about an hour whilst 
the drying is going on, during which there is only one 
thing relative to the work in hand which need be 
attended to. This is the size, which should be put in 
a large basin with ^ pint of cold water to each pound, 
and then stood in a warm place to dissolve. Before 
recommencing work, also, the brushes must be washed, 
and this is no great trouble, as a little lukewarm water 
will take out all trace of the stain and clean them 
quite sufficiently. The sizing is then laid on in 
exactly the same manner as the staining, always being 
careful to pass the brush lengthwise down the boards. 
If the size froths or sticks unpleasantly, it must be a 
little more diluted with warm water, and sometimes, if 
the sediment from it is very thick, it is all the better 
for being strained through a coarse muslin. The 
sizing takes rather longer than the varnish to dry, 2 of 
more hours being necessary, even on a warm, dry day. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 43 

Not until it is quite dry, however, can the last finish 
be put to the work with the varnish. For this it is 
always safest to get the very best, and to lay it on 
rather literally, though very evenly, and over every 
single inch, as the staining will soon rub off when not 
protected by it. The best way to ascertain whether 
it is varnished all over is to kneel down and look at 
the floor sideways, with one's eyes almost on a level 
with it. 

Green, — (i) Mordant the wood with red liquor at i° 
B. This is prepared by dissolving separately in water 
I part sugar of lead and 4 of alum free from iron; mix 
the solutions, and then add ^\ part of soda crystals, 
and let settle overnight. The clear liquor is decanted 
off from the sediment of lead sulphate, and is then 
diluted with water till it marks i° B. The wood when 
mordanted is dyed green with berry liquor and indigo 
extract, the relative proportions of which determine 
the tone of the green. 

(2) Verdigris dissolved in 4 parts water. 

(3) 4.2 oz. copper, cut up finely, are gradually 
dissolved in 13 oz. nitric acid (aqua fortis), and the 
articles to be stained are boiled in this solution until 
they have assumed a fine green color. 

Gray. — (i) Grays may be produced by boiling 17 oz. 
orchil paste for }4 hour in 7 pints water. The wood 
is first treated with this solution, and then, before it 
is dry, steeped in a beck of iron nitrate at 1° B. An 
excess of iron gives a yellowish tone; otherwise a blue 
gray is produced, which may be completely converted 
into blue by means of a little potash. 

(2) One part silver nitrate dissolved in 50 of 
distilled water; wash over twice; then with hydro- 
chloric acid, and afterwards with water of ammonia. 



44 THE UP-TO-DATE 

The wood is allowed to dry in the dark, and then 
finished in oil and polished. 

Mahogany. — (i) Boil Yz lb. madder and 2 oz. log- 
wood chips in i gal. water, and brush well over while 
hot. When dry, go over with pearlash solution, 2 dr. 
to the quart. By using it strong or weak, the color 
can be varied at pleasure. 

(2) Soak I lb. stick varnish in 2 qt. water until all 
the color is dissolved out; strain off the water, and 
add to the residue 25 dr. powdered madder. Set the 
mixture over the fire until it is reduced to ^ of its 
original volume. Then mix together 25 dr. cochineal, 
25 dr. kermes berries, I pint spirits of wine, and }^ oz. 
pearlash, out of which the color has been washed by 
soaking in a gill of soft water. Add this mixture to 
the decoction of madder and varnish, stirring well 
together, and adding so much aqua fortis as will brin.c: 
the red to the desired shade. 

(3) Dark Mahogany. — Introduce into a bottle 15 gr. 
alkanet root, 30 gr. aloes, 30 gr. powdered dragons' 
blood, and 500 gr. 95 per cent alcohol, closing the 
mouth of the bottle with a piece of bladder, keeping 
it in a warm place for 3 or 4 days, with occasional 
shaking, then filtering the liquid. The wood is first 
mordanted with nitric acid, and when dry washed with 
the stain once or oftener, according to the desired 
shade; then, the wood being dried, it is oiled and 
polished. 

(4) Light Mahogany. — Same as dark mahogany, but 
the stain being only applied once. The veins of true 
mahogany may be imitated by the use of iron acetate 
skillfully applied. 

(5) The following process is recommended in 
**Wiederhold's Trade Circular:" — The coarse wood is 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 45 

first coated with a colored size, which is prepared by 
thoroughly mixing up, in a warm solution, i part 
commercial glue in 6 of water, a sufficient quantity of 
the commercial mahogany brown, which is in reality 
an iron oxide, and in color stands between so-called 
Indian red and iron oxide. This is best effected by 
adding in excess a sufficient quantity of the dry color 
with the warm solution of glue, and thoroughly 
mixing the mass by means of a brush until a uniform 
paste is obtained, in which no more dry red particles 
are seen. A trial coat is then laid upon a piece of 
wood. If it is desired to give a light mahogany color 
to the object, it is only necessary to add less, and, for a 
darker color, more, of the brown body-color. When 
the coat is dry, it may be tested, by rubbing with the 
fingers, whether the color easily separates or not. In 
the former case, more glue must be added until the dry 
trial coat no longer perceptibly rubs off with the 
hands. Having ascertained in this way the right 
condition of the size color with respect to tint and 
strength, it is then warmed slightly, and worked 
through a hair sieve by means of a brush. After this, 
it is rubbed upon the wood surface with the brush, 
which has been carefully washed. It is not necessary 
to keep the color warm during the painting. Should 
it become thick by gelatinizing, it may be laid on the 
wood with the brush, and dries more rapidly than 
when the color is too thin. If the wood is porous and 
absorbs much color, a second coat may be laid on the 
first when dry, which will be sufficient in all cases. 
On drying, the size color appears dull and unsightly, 
but the following coat changes immediately the 
appearance of the surface. This coat is spirit varnish. 
For its production 3 parts spirits of wine of 90° are 



46 THE UP-TO-DATE 

added in excess to I part of red acaroid resin in one 
vessel, and in another lO parts shellac with 40 of 
spirits of wine of 80%. By repeated agitation for 3 or 
4 days, the spirit dissolves the resin completely. The 
shellac solution is then poured carefully from the 
sediment, or, better still, filtered through a fine cloth, 
when it may be observed that a slight milky turbidity 
is no detriment 10 its use. The resin solution is best 
filtered into the shellac solution by pouring through a 
funnel loosely packed with wadding. When filtered, 
the solutions of both resins are mixed by agitating the 
vessel and letting the varnish stand a few days. The 
acaroid resin colors the shellac, and imparts to it at 
the same time the degree of suppleness usually 
obtained by the addition of Venetian turpentine or 
linseed oil. If the varnish is to be employed as a coat, 
the upper layers are poured off at once from the 
vessel. One or two coats suffice, as a rule, to give the 
object an exceedingly pleasing effect. The coats dry 
very quickly, and care must be taken not to apply the 
second coat until the first is completely dry. 

(6) 7.5 oz. madder, 8.7$ oz. rasped yellow wood, are 
boiled for I hour in 5.5 lb. water, and the boiling 
liquor is applied to the articles until the desired color 
has been produced. 

(7) 1.05 oz. powdered turmeric, 1.05 oz. powdered 
dragons' blood, are digested in 8.75 oz. of 80 per cent 
strong alcohol, and when the latter seems to be thor- 
oughly colored it is filtered through a cloth. The fil- 
trate is heated and applied warm to the article. 

(8) 17.5 oz. madder, 8.75 oz. ground logwood, are 
boiled for i hour in 5.5 lb. water. This is filtered 
while still warm, and the warm liquor is applied to 
the wood. When this has become dry, and it is 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 47 

desired to produce a darker mahogany color, a solu- 
tion of 0.525 oz. potash carbonate in 4.4 lb. water is 
applied to the wood. This solution is prepared cold, 
and filtered through blotting-paper. 

(9) 0.35 oz. aniline is dissolved in 8.75 oz. spirits 
of wine 90 per cent strong. Then another solution of 
0.35 oz. aniline yellow in 17.5 oz. spirits of wine 90 
per cent strong is made, and this is added to the aniline 
solution until the required reddish-yellow color is 
obtained. By adding a little of a solution of aniline 
brown (0.35 oz. aniline brown in 10.5 oz. spirits of wine 
90 per cent strong), the color is still more completely 
harmonized, and a tint very closely resembling 
mahogany can be given to elm and cherry wood with 
this mixture, 

(10) 0.7 oz. logwood is boiled in 3.5 oz. water down 
to about yi. This is then filtered, and 0.12 oz. baryta 
chloride is dissolved in it. 

Oak. — (i) Mix powdered ocher, Venetian red, and 
umber, in size, in proportions to suit; or a richer stain 
may be made with raw sienna, burnt sienna, and 
Vandyke. A light yellow stain of raw sienna alone 
is very effective. 

(2) Darkening Oak. — Lay on liquid ammonia with a 
rag or brush. The color deepens immediately, and 
does not fade; this being an artificial production of 
the process which is induced naturally by age. Potash 
bichromate, dissolved in cold water and applied in a 
like manner, will produce a very similar result. 

(3) In Germany, the cabinetmakers use very strong 
coffee for darkening oak. To make it very dark: 
iron filings with a little sulphuric acid and water, put 
on with a sponge, and allowed to dry between each 
application until the right hue is reached. 



48 THE UP-TO-DATE 

(4) Whitewash with fresh lime, and when dry brush 
off the lime with a hard brush, and dress well with 
linseed oil. It should be done after the wood has 
been worked, and it will make not only the wood, but 
the carving or moulding, look old also. 

(5) Use a strong solution of common washing-soda, 
say one or two coats, until the proper color is obtained. 
Or you may try potash carbonate. Paper and finish 
off with linseed oil. 

(6) A decoction of green walnut-shells will bring 
new oak to any shade, or nearly black. 

(7) A good method of producing the peculiar oliv6 
brown of old oak is by fumigation with liquid 
ammonia; the method has many advantages beyond 
the expense of making a case or room airtight and 
the price of the ammonia. It does not raise the grain, 
the work keeping as smooth as at first. Any tint, or 
rather, depth of the color can be given with certainty; 
and the darker shade of color will be found to have 
penetrated to the depth of a veneer, and much farther 
where the end grain is exposed, thus doing away with 
the chance of an accidental knock showing the white 
wood. The coloring is very even and pure, not 
destroying the transparency of the wood. It is 
advisable to make the furniture from one kind of stuff, 
not to mix white 6ak with red, and so on. They both 
take the color well, but there is a kind of American 
live oak that does not answer well. In all cases care 
must be taken to have no glue or grease on the work, 
which would cause white spots to be left. The deal 
portions of the work are not affected in the least, 
neither does it affect the sap of oak. The best kind 
of polish for furniture treated in this manner is wax 
polish, or the kind known as egg-shell polish. The 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 49 

process of fumigation is very simple. Get a large 
packing case, or better still, make a room in a corner 
of the polishing shop about 9 ft. long, 6 ft, high, and 
3 ft. 6 in. wide; pass paper over the joints; let the 
door close on to a strip of india-rubber tubing; put a 
pane of glass in the side of box or house to enable you 
to examine the progress of coloring. In putting in 
your work see that it does not touch anything to 
hinder the free course of the fumes. Put 2 or 3 
dishes on the floor to hold the ammonia; about )^ pint 
is sufficient for a case this size. The ammonia differs 
in purity, some leaving more residue than others. 
Small articles can be done by simply covering them 
with a cloth, having a little spirits in a pot underneath. 
A good useful color can be given by leaving the 
things exposed to the fumes overnight. The color 
lightens on being polished, owing to the transparency 
thus given to the wood. 

Purple. — (i) Take i lb. logwood chips, ^ gal. 
water, 4 oz. pearlash, 2 oz. powdered indigo. Boil 
the logwood in the water till the full strength is 
obtained, then add the pearlash and indigo, and when 
the ingredients are dissolved the mixture is ready for 
use, either warm or cold. This gives a beautiful 
purple. 

(2) To stain wood a rich purple or chocolate color, 
boil Yz lb. madder and ^ lb. fustic in i gal. water, and 
when boiling brush over the work until stained. If 
the surface of the work should be perfectly smooth, 
brush over the work with a weak solution of nitric acid; 
then finish with the following: put 4^ oz. dragons' 
blood and i oz. soda, both well bruised, into 3 pints 
spirits of wine. Let it stand in a warm place, shake 
frequently, strain and lay on with a soft brush, 



50 THE UP-TO-DATE 

/epeating until a proper color is gained. Polish with 
linseed oil or varnish. 

(3) 2.2 lb. rasped logwood, 5.5 lb. rasped Lima red 
dyewood are boiled for i hour in 5.5 lb. water. It is 
then filtered through a cloth and applied to the article 
to be stained until the desired color has been obtained. 
In the meanwhile a solution of 0. 175 oz. potash 
carbonate in 17.5 oz. water has been prepared, and a 
thin coat of this is applied to the article stained red. 
But strict attention must be paid not to apply too thick 
a coat of this solution, or else a dark blue color would 
be the result. 

Red. — (i) The wood is plunged first in a solution of 
I oz. of curd soap in 35 fl. oz. water, or else is rubbed 
with the solution; then magenta is applied in a state 
of sufficient dilution to bring out^ the tone required. 
All the aniline colors behave very well on wood. 

(2) For a red stain, a decoction of }( lb. logwood 
and yi oz. potash in i lb. water is used as the bath, 
being fixed by a wash of alum water. For scarlet, use 
I oz. cochineal, 6 oz. powdered argol, 4 oz. cream tar- 
tar, in 12 oz. tin chloride (scarlet spirits). 

(3) Take i qt. alcohol, 3 oz. Brazil-wood, J^ oz. 
dragons' blood, ^ oz. cochineal, I oz. saffron. Steep 
to full strength and strain. It is a beautiful crimson 
stain for violms, work-boxes, and fancy articles. 

(4) Beside the aniline colors, which are, however, 
much affected by sunlight, cochineal gives a very 
good scarlet red upon wood. Boil 2 oz. cochineal, 
previously reduced to a fine powder, in 35 oz. of water 
for 3 hours, and apply it to the wood. When dry, give 
it a coating of dilute tin chloride to which is added a 
little tartaric acid — i oz. tin chloride and J^ oz. 
tartaric acid in 35 fi, oz. water. If, instead of water, 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 51 

tne cochineal is boiled in a decoction of bark (2 oz. 
bark to 35 oz. water), and the tin chloride is used as 
above, an intense scarlet and all shades of orange may 
be produced according to the proportions. 

(5) Take i gal. alcohol, 1% lb. camwood, % lb. red 
Sanders, i lb. logwood extract, 2 oz. aqua fortis. 
When dissolved, it is ready for use. It should be 
applied in 3 coats over the whole surface. When dry, 
rub down to a smooth surface, using for the purpose 
a very fine paper. The graining is done with iron 
rust, and the shading with asphaltum thinned with 
spirits of turpentine. When the shading is dry, apply 
a thin coat of shellac; and when that is dry, rub down 
with fine paper. The work is then ready for varnish- 
ing — a fine rose tint. 

(6) Monnier recommends steeping the wood for 
several hours in a bath of 1200 gr. potassium iodide to 
the quart of water, and then immersing it in a bath of 
375 gr* corrosive sublimate, when it will assume a 
beautiful rose-red color by chemical precipitation. It 
should subsequently be covered with a glossy varnish. 
The baths will not need renewal for a long time. 

(7) 2.2 lb. finely powdered Lima red dyewood and 

2.1 oz. potash carbonate are put in a glass bottle and 
digested in 5.5 lb. water for 8 days in a warm place; 
the bottle should be frequently shaken. It is then 
filtered through a cloth; the fluid is heated, and 
applied to the article to be stained until the latter 
acquires a beautiful color. If it is desired to brighten 
the color, a solution of 2.1 oz. alum, free from iron, in 

2.2 lb. water is applied to the article while it is still 
wet. The last solution can be prepared by heat; when 
It has been "accomplished, it is filtered. As soon as 
tne stains have become dry, they should be rubbed 



52 THE UP-TO-DATE 

with a rag moistened with linseed oil, after which the 
varnish may be applied. 

Satinwood. — Take i qt. alcohol, 3 oz. ground 
turmeric, i^ oz. powdered gamboge. When steeped 
to its full strength, strain through fine muslin. It is 
then ready for use. Apply with a piece of fine sponge, 
giving the work 2 coats. When dry, sandpaper down 
very fine. It is then ready for polish or varnish, and 
is a good imitation of satinwood. 

Violet. — The wood is treated in a bath made up with 
4^ oz. olive oil, the same weight of soda-ash, and 
2^ pints boiling water, and it is then dyed with 
magenta to which a corresponding quantity of tin 
crystals has been added. 

Walnut. — Deal and other common woods are stained 
to imitate polished walnut in various ways, (i) One 
method is, after careful rubbing with glass-paper, to go 
over the surface with a preparation of Cassel brown 
boiled in a lye of soft-soap and soda. After drying, 
the surface rs rubbed over with pumice and oil, and 
polished with shellac. The Cassel brown will not take 
equally well on all kinds of wood, so that if not laid 
on thick it sometimes comes off under the subsequent 
pumicing; whilst on the other hand this same thickness 
conceals, more or less, the grain on the wood beneath, 
giving it the appearance of having been painted. 

(2) Others use instead a decoction of green walnut- 
shells, dried and boiled in the same lye, or in soft 
water to which soda has been added. The decoction 
of walnut-shells is apt to come off on the clothes as a 
yellowish, adhesive substance. 

(3) Others, agam, employ catechu and potash 
chromate in equal parts, boiled separately and after- 
wards mixed. The mixture of catechu and potash 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 53 

chromate leaves a reddish-brown deposit on the surface 
of the wood, very unlike real walnut. 

(4) The following is said to be a very superior 
method for staining any kind of wood in imitation of 
walnut, while it is also cheap and simple in its manip- 
ulation. The wood, previously thoroughly dried 
and warmed, is coated once or twice with a stain com- 
posed of I oz. extract of walnut peel dissolved in 6 oz. 
soft water by heating it to boiling, and stirring. The 
wood thus treated, when half dry, is brushed with a 
solution of I oz. potash bichromate in 5 oz. boiling 
water, and is then allowed to dry thoroughly, and is 
to be rubbed and polished as usual. Red beech and 
alder, under this treatment, assume a most deceptive 
resemblance to American walnut. The color is fixed 
in the wood to a depth of one or two lines. 

(5) Mix dragons' blood and lampblack in methylated 
spirits till you get the color required, and rub it well 
into the grain of the wood. 

(6) Light Walnut. — Dissolve I part potassium 
permanganate in 30 of pure water, and apply twice in 
succession; after an interval of 5 minutes, wash with 
clean water, and when dry, oil and polish. 

(7) Dark Walnut. — Same as for light walnut, but 
after the washing with water the dark veins are made 
more prominent with a solution of iron acetate. 

(8) In the winter season get some privet berries 
(black), which grow in most gardens, and put 2 oz. in 
y^ pint solution of liquid ammonia. This, applied to 
pine, varnished or polished, cannot be detected from 
real walnut itself. 

(9) Take i gal. very thin sized shellac; add i lb. dry 
burnt umber, i lb. dry burnt sienna, and ^ lb. 
lampblack. Put these articles into a jug and shake 



54 THE UP-TO-DATE 

frequently until they are mixed. Apply one coat with 
a brush. When the work is dry, rub down with fine 
paper, and apply one coat of shellac or cheap varnish. 
It will then be a good imitation of solid walnut, and 
will be adapted for the back boards of mirror-frames, 
for the back and inside of casework, and for similar 
work. 

(lo) Take i gal. strong vinegar, i lb. dry burnt 
umber, >^ lb, fine rose pink, Y^ lb. dry burnt Vandyke 
brown. Put into a jug and mix well; let the mixture 
stand one day, and it will then be ready for use. 
Apply this stain to the sap with a piece of fine sponge; 
it will dry in ^ hour. The whole piece is then ready 
for the filling process. When the work is completed, 
the stained part cannot be detected even by those who 
have performed the job. By means of this recipe, 
wood of poor quality and mostly of sap can be used 
with good effect. 

(ii) Darkening Walnut. — Slaked lime, i to 4 of 
water, will do for some kinds of walnut; a weak solution 
of iron sulphate for others; and yet again for other kinds 
a weak solution of pearlash. Try each on the wood, 
and choose the one you like best. 

(12) To give to walnut a dark color resembling 
rosewood, Hirschberg uses a solution of 0.17 oz. potash 
bichromate in 1.05 oz. water. This solution is applied 
to the walnut with a sponge, and the wood is then 
pumiced and polished. 

(13) By a simple staining, furniture of pine or birch 
wood can be easily made to appear as if it had been 
veneered with walnut veneer. For this a solution ot 
3.15 oz. potash manganate, and 3.15 oz. manganese 
sulphate in 5.25 qt. hot water, is made. This solution 
is applied to the wood with a brush, and must be 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 55 

repeated several times. The potash manganate is 
decomposed when it comes in contact with the woody 
fiber, and thus a beautiful and very durable walnut 
color is obtained. It small wooden articles are to be 
stained in this manner, a very diluted bath is prepared; 
the articles are dipped into it, and kept there i to 9 
minutes, according as the color is desired lighter or 
darker. 

Yellow. — (i) Mordant with red liquor, and dye with 
bark liquor and turmeric. 

(2) Turmeric dissolved in wood naphtha. 

(3) Aqua regia (nitro-muriatic acid), diluted in 3 
parts water, is a much-used though rather destructive 
yellow stain. 

(4) N'tric acid gives a fine permanent yellow, which 
is converted into dark brown by subsequent application 
of tincti^re of iodine. 

(5) Wash over with a hot concentrated solution of 
picric acid, and when dry, polish the wood. 

(6) Orange-Yellow Tone to Oak Wood. — Accord- 
ing to Niedling, a beautiful orange-yellow tone, much 
admired in a chest at the Vienna Exhibition, may be 
imparted to oak wood by rubbing it in a warm room 
with a certain mixture until it acquires a dull polish, 
and then coating it after an hour with thin polish, and 
repeating the coating of polish to improve the depth 
and brilliancy of the tone. The ingredients for the 
rubbing mixture are about 3 oz. tallow, % oz. wax, and 
I pint oil of turpentine, mixed by heating together and 
stirring. 

(7) 0-5 oz. nitric acid (aqua fortis) is compounded 
with 1.57 oz. rain-water, and the article to be stained is 
brushed over with this. Undiluted nitric acid give:: a 
brownish-yellow color. 



56 THE UP-TO-DATE 

(8) 2.1 oz. finely powdered turmeric are digested for 
several days in 17.5 oz. alcohol 80 per cent strong, and 
then strained through a cloth. This solution is applied 
to the articles to be stained. When they have become 
entirely dry, they are burnished and varnished. 

(9) 1.57 oz. potash carbonate are dissolved in 4.2 oz. 
rain-water. This solution is poured over 0.52 oz. 
annotto, and this mixture is allowed to stand for 3 days 
in a warm place, being frequently shaken in the 
meanwhile. It is then filtered, and 0.175 oz. spirit of 
sal-ammoniac is added to it. The stain is now ready, 
and the articles to be stained will acquire a very 
beautiful bright yellow color by placing them in it. 

(10) Bright Golden Yellow. — 0.52 oz. finely 
powdered madder is digested for 12 hours with 2.1 oz. 
diluted sulphuric acid, and then filtered through a 
cloth. The articles to be stained are allowed to 
remain in this fluid 3 to 4 days, when they will be 
stained through. 

Most of the foregoing is taken from English, French, 
and German sources, but the following are methods 
usually adopted in .Anierican practice; but it is just as 
well that the finisher should be conversant, to some 
extent, with the practice of other nationalities as well 
as that of his own. 

Stains may be classified as follows: Those made with 
oil and color, those made with spirits and color, those 
made with water and coloring matter other than 
anilines, and those made with water and anilines. 
Generally, spirit stains are made with anilines. 

Water stains are those in which the coloring matter 
is mixed with water. A good mahogany water stain 
is made as follows: Fustic chips, 4 oz. ; madder root, 
y^ lb.; water about 4 qt. This should boil for several 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 57 

hours and should be applied boiling hot, after being 
well strained. 

For walnut: Vandyke brown, i lb.; strong lye, ^ 
pt.; water, 3 qt. This should boil down to about three 
pints, and should be applied to the wood when cold 
with a sponge or pad. 

A good cherry stain can be made by mixing a pound 
of Spanish annotto, an ounce of strong lye, and water. 
Boil forty minutes. If not deep enough in color, boil 
more, and add a little gamboge to darken it. 

There is very little difference between cherry and 
mahogany stains; the latter are somewhat darker, but 
may be reduced to answer. 

Aniline stains are easily made, and are usually very 
even and free from cloudy spots when properly laid 
on. All or any of anilines will dissolve in water, oil, 
or alcohol, but will dissolve much quicker in warm 
liquid than in cold. Time will therefore be saved by 
having the medium hot. 

One example of making a water stain from anilines 
will answer for the whole group. If for mahogany, 
use Bismarck brown, i oz. ; add 3 qt. water boiling hot; 
stir until the brown is all dissolved. When cool it is 
ready to apply. 

Many excellent stains for pine may be obtained by 
using the ordinary graining colors, Vandyke brown, 
raw and burnt sienna, ultramarine blue, etc., applied 
with a brush, without previous preparation, and then 
wiped off with a cloth — a method that brings out 
clearly the grain or marks of the wood, which in pitch 
pine, now being extensively used for fittings, are often 
extremely beautiful. A better method for general 
work, French polish being ordinarily too expensive, 
•«i. where dark oak or mahogany stains are not wanted, 



58 THE UP-TO-DATE 

light varnishes, of which two coats are to be applied. 
The glue size with which the work is first coated, in 
order to fill up the pores of the wood, should not be 
too thick, as in that case it is liable to crack. 

Logwood, lime, brown soft soap, dyed oil, sulphate 
uf iron, nitrate of silver exposed to the sun's rays, 

arbonate of soda, bichromate and permanganate of 
I'^lash, and other alkaline preparations, are used for 
.!>i!kening the wood; the last three are specially 
'commended. The solution is applied by dissolving 

ne ounce of the alkali in two gills of boiling water, 
..iluted to the required tone. The surface is saturated 

,ith a sponge or flannel, and immediately dried with 
-uft rags. The carbonate is used for dark woods. Oil 
iinged with rose madder may be applied to hardwoods 
like birch, and a red oil is prepared from soaked 
alkanet root in linseed oil. The grain of yellow pine 
can be brought out by two or three coats of japan, 
much diluted with turpentine, and afterwards oiled 
and rubbed. To give mahogany the appearance of 
age, lime water used before oiling is a good plan. 
In staining wood, the best and most transparent effect 
is obtained by repeatt^d light coats of the same. For 
oak stain a strong solution of oxaiic acid is employea; 
for mahogany, dilute nitric acia. A primary coat or a 
coat of wood fillers is advantageous. For mahogany 
stains, the following are given: two ounces of dragons' 
blood dissolved in one quart of rectified spirits of 
wine, well shaken, or raw sienna in beer, with burnt 
sienna to give the required tone; for darker stains boil 
half-pound of madder and two ounces of logwood 
chips in one gallon of water, and brush the decoction 
while hot over the wood; when dry, paint with a 
solution of two ounces of potash in one quart of water. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 59 

A solution of permanganate of potash forms a rapid 
and excellent brown stain. 

Oak or ash may be stained brown by using linseed 
oil and benzine half and half, and burnt umber or 
Vandyke brown incorporated with this. Maple can be 
stained green-gray by using copperas in water; oak 
will also be changed to a dark green blue through the 
same agency, the effect on ash being various shades of 
olive green. Ammonia applied to oak produces the 
bronze olive tint now used so much by architects. 

Wash any compact wood with a boiling decoction of 
logwood three or four times, allowing it to dry between 
each application. Then wash it with a solution of 
acetate of iron, which is made by dissolving iron filings 
in vinegar. This stain is very black, and penetrates to 
a considerable depth into the wood, so that ordinary 
scratching or chipping does not show the original color. 

A wash of one part of nitric acid in ten parts of water 
will, if well done, impart a stain resembling mahogany 
to pine wood which does not contain much resin. When 
the wood is thoroughly dry, shellac varnish will impart 
a fine finish to the surface. A glaze of carm.ineor lake 
will produce a rosewood finish. A turpentine extract of 
alkanet root produces a beautiful stain wtiicn aamits of 
French poiishing. Asphaltum, thinned with turpentine, 
makes an excellent mahogany color on new wood„ 

When describing the treatment of different kinds of 
wood, which will follow, I will have more to sav 
regarding the method of staining. 

VARNISHING AND POLISHING 

French polishing was at one^ time the oniy method 
of polishing permitted to be employed on work of the 
first class, because of its permanency and uniform 



6o THE UP-TO-DATE 

appearance, and the man who understood the process, 
and could mix the materials used, could always demand 
good pay and steady employment. Now, however, 
there are a number of methods and varnishes that are 
almost as good as the method and materials used in 
French polishing, and which can be applied at one- 
eighth the cost, and which when done look just about as 
well, though perhaps they will not be permanent. So, 
while French polishing still survives to some extent, 
and is likely to be practiced for many years to come, a 
description of the method and materials is quite 
necessary in a book of this kind; therefore no excuse 
is necessary to account for its appearance in these 
pages. 

Varnishing, on which depends to a certain extent the 
beauty of the work, to be of a durable character should 
be done in a temperature of 65'^ F. or more, from the 
beginning of the work to the finishing of the same, day 
and night included. A higher temperature, if not over 
125° F., will not harm fine varnishes; in fact, will turn 
out nicer work than in a lower temperature, and will 
enable a manufacturer to turn out work in amuch shorter 
time. In a temperature of but 65° to 75° F. from four 
to six days between coatings is advisable, as this will 
give good and unfailing results. In 125° F. the same 
good results can be obtained in one-half the time. Var- 
nishing departments, outside the filling and rubbing 
rooms, should be kept absolutely clean. The filling 
and rubbing rooms should be kept as clean as pos- 
sible. 

After cabinet-work has received one-half the varnish 
coatings and the varnish is perfectly dry, rub the surface 
with pumice-stone and water — use a piece of felt — to 
a smooth, even surface. Allow the work to stand 24 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 6i 

hours, and then begin the application of the last half 
of varnish coatings, giving tht same time between 
coatings. After all the coatings are perfectly dry, go 
through the same rubbing process. A perfect, smooth 
surface for polishing will be the result. Let the work 
stand for 24 hours after this rubbing, then start polish- 
ing by moistening a fine piece of cloth with water, 
dipped in powdered rotten stone, thus moistening the 
same also, and begin to rub the surface of the work 
with a steady hand and evenly, in order to remove 
with this fine rotten stone the fine scratches, if any, 
which are generally caused by the rubbing of the 
pumice-stone. This accomplished, continue the rub- 
bing with the palm of the hand instead of the cloth, 
using moist rotten stone, and rub the work until the 
fine polish required is obtained. The rotten stone then 
generally falls off the hand and you work in a dry dust. 
Wash the surface clean with water, using a fine sponge 
and chamois. Allow the polished work to stand 24 
hours, then oil the same off with a light oil and a very 
soft rag or cotton bat. Take another fine rag or cotton 
bat and remove all the oil by rubbing or wiping the 
same gently, but absolutely clean, off the polished 
surface. To be sure this is accomplished, moisten the 
cloth or cotton bat with alcohol. The polish, it every- 
thing is done correctly, will then be finished. 

Care should be taken that too much varnish is not 
put on the work. For good finishing only a minimum 
of material should be used if the grain of the wood is 
wished to be seen, for the less varnish used, providing 
a good polish is obtained, will bring out the details of 
the wood better than a dozen coats would. If one coat 
of varnish, is not enough, two will be, and it is not good 
practice to employ more, nor is it good workmanship. 



62 THE UP-TO-DATE 

A room that is dark or damp will spoil the varnish, 
and a room that is excessively warm will keep the 
varnish ?oft. Barrels of varnish should not be stored 
in a very warm room, as the heat will open the joints 
m the barrels, and the varnish, which will be quite thin 
owing to the heat, will leak out. In summer, varnish 
should be stored in a basement where it is cool. 

Turning white is caused by the action of water or 
dampness. The better the grade of varnish and the 
more elastic it is, the less liable it is to be affected by 
moisture. In applying two coats of varnish, neither 
should be heavy, more especially the first coat. If it 
is, it will not generally get thoroughly dry at the 
bottom before the second one is applied, and the result 
will be disastrous, as it will cause the last coat to 
crack, wrinkle, or sag, as it is called. Another bad 
result of not giving varnish time to dry will be noticed 
by the last coat deadening or sinking away. This is 
caused by the undercoat not having been allowed 
sufficient time to dry, resulting in the finishing coat 
becoming absorbed while in the course of hardening. 

The varnisher must be careful that there is no oil on 
the surface to be varnished, as it will cause pitting, or 
little hollows in the varnish. When varnish is so thick 
it does not spread well, it may be thinned by adding a 
little turpentine, but care must be taken that it is 
thoroughly incorporated in the varnish, as, if it is not, 
this will also cause pitting. A long-haired, pliant 
brush is best with which to apply varnish. It should 
be spread with long, steady strokes, drawn in a per- 
fectly straight line lengthwise the grain of the wood. 
Oil japan or liquid dryer should never be added to 
good varnish. Each coat of varnish should be given 
three or four days to harden before another coat is 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



63 



added or before the last coat is rubbed, if a rubbed 
surface is required. 

One thing should always be considered before 
varnishing begins, and that is, that a good coat of 
colorless shellac should be laid on the 
work just as soon as the filler is dry 
and properly rubbed down. This will 
hermetically seal up all the pores and 
prevent the varnish from sinking or 
showing hollow spots on the work. 

I show the style of brush which is 
generally used for applying shellac, in 
Fig. 107; it is taken from a dealer's 
catalogue, and is oval in section and 
metal-bound. 

An excellent shellac varnish is made 
by dissolving 3}^ lb. of orange shellac 
in I gal. of grain or wood alcohol. Let 
stand in a warm place until the shellac 
is thoroughly dissolved. If shaken 
once in a while, the shellac will dis- 
solve quicker. 

For making white shellac varnish, 
take 2i/{ ^b. of white shellac and mix 
with alcohol, grain or wood, the same 
as before. These proportions are offered 
only as a sort of guide, but they may 
be varied a little as experience will 
show. 

All varnish should be laid on with 
the grain if possible, or there will likely be sagging 
along the brush marks. 

Where varnish is flowed the operator should not be 
*'stingv" with his material or his work will not be 



Fig. 107 



64 THE UP-TO-DATE 

good. There is a tendency always with the beglnnei 
to "lay off" his varnish too thin, or to "skin" it. as it 
is termed. It is always better to err on the side of 
using too much, than too little varnish, if good work is 
desired. Too much varnish, however, should be 
avoided, as the work will be apt to crack and become 
disfigured in time. The brushes shown 
in Figs. io8 and 109 are among the best 
for flowing purposes. 

Generally, unless on the very hard- 
est of woods, two coats of varnish are 
necessary before the process of rubbing 
can be commenced, as a good surface 
cannot be obtained unless there is a 
good ground to work on. 

A few hints as to "rubbing" may not 
be out of place. First, see that the 
varnish is dry and hard. If an impres- 
sion can be made on it with a finger 
nail, it is too soft to rub; let it stand 
awhile. 

Never rub across the grain if it can 
be avoided. 

Always rub with the grain, lightening 
the stroke at the ends. 

Rub lightly at first and avoid making 

Fig. 108 b^re spots. 

Use fine pumice-stone at first, and 
all the time, until yoii get accustomed to the work. 

Use a pad of felt about 2/^^4H inches for a rubber. 

Rub with either water or with rubbing oil — the latter 
preferred — or use linseed oil. 

Sprinkle the pumice-stone powder on the work, 
dip the rubber in the oil, then rub lightly. 




HARDWOOD FINISHER 



asf 



Clean off the work with damp, clean sawdust and 4 
brush, or with soft cotton wadding. 

For mouldings, make reverse 
shapes, cover with felt, and pro- 
ceed as with the flat surfaces. 

After rubbing, the work is ready 
for polishing. This is done by 
making a mixture of half sweet 
oil and half alcohol. Then make 
a large wad of nice clean cotton 
and rub the work with a circular 
motion until the proper polish is 
attained. This requires some 
practice, but is easily acquired. 

Another and a better method 
is to put on an extra coat of flow- 
ing varnish, then rub down with 
fine pumice-stone and clean care- 
fully. After this, rub down with a 
lump of faced-up pumice, or with 
chamois leather and powdered rot- 
ten stone. Let the rotten stone 
become dry on the surface, then 
wipe off with the palm of the 
hand, which rubs up the work, 
with a rotary motion. A piece of 
fine linen or silk should be handy, 
on which the hand should be 
cleaned from time to time. 

If a dead finish is required, do 
not polish after rubbing over with powdered pumice- 
stone and oil. 

Of course, the operator must always bear in mina* 
during the several operations, that care and cleanliness 




Fig. 109 



06 THE UP-TO-DATE 

are two necessary factors, and without them, there 
:an be no such thing as satisfactory results. A 
slovenly workman should never attempt to polish, for 
no good can come from it. In all my experience, 
which covers many years, I have never known of a 
careless or slovenly man making good work in this 
particular department. 

French Polishing. — Much has been said and written 
on this subject, and many comparisons have been made 
between this and other methods of polishing, but the 
writer, from his architectural experience and general 
observation, does not hesitate for a moment in saying 
that ^'French polished" work is much superior to any 
or all other polished work, so far as durability and 
effect is concerned. True, other methods are — many 
of them — much more economical and easier acquired, 
but they do not have the staying powers that the good 
old-fashioned French polishing has. 

Although, as before stated, much has been written 
on the subject, there is a certain sameness in the 
descriptions, and I confess I do not see how it could 
be otherwise, as the subject is one that can have onlv 
one side to it; hence the sameness of description. 

I will not attempt to write a description, as it would 
be no improvement on former ones; so I offer the 
following, which is taken from an English source^ 
that has been American/zed to some extent. 

In French polishing, the wood has to be prepared 
and various minor details attended to before this can 
be done. For example, the pores of open-grained 
wood must be stopped or, as the process is generally 
called, filled, to get a smooth surface and to prevent 
excessive absorption of the liquid polish. Then the 
appearance of some woods is improved and enriched 



HARDWOOD FINISHER f^ 

by oiling them before applying the polish. This 
oiling, to a certain extent, darkens and mellows them, 
and brings up the figure. 

The temperature and atmosphere of the place in 
which French polishing is done are of considerable 
importance. Work cannot be done properly in a cold 
or damp room, as then the polish will get chilled, and, 
as it sets on the wood, becomes opaque and cloudy. 
To avoid this the polisher should work in a warm 
room. The temperature for a living room, about 70**, 
is about that suited for polishing. In warm summer 
weather a fire is not necessary, but in winter it is. If 
the polisher notices that his polish chills, he must 
increase the heat of his room. If a moderate amount 
of warmth be brought near the surface as soon as any 
chill is observed, it will probably disappear. A small 
article may be taken to the fire, but with large work 
this course would hardly be convenient. In such 
cases a good plan is to hold something warm a short 
distance from the chilled surface, but on no account 
must it touch, nor must the heat be great enough to 
scorch the polish. A common plan, but not altogether 
a good one, is to hold a piece of burning paper near 
the chill. An ordinary flatiron is very useful for 
small chilled patches. When the article is cold or 
damp, chill is more likely to occur. It is, there- 
fore, always necessary to make sure after a stain 
has been used that the wood has become thoroughly 
dry. 

Not less important is the employment of suitable 
materials, both* in the polish and in the tools of the 
polisher's art. These latter consist almost entirely or 
wadding or- cotton wool and soft linen or cotton rags, 
from which the rubbers to apply the polish are made; 



58 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



and a few bottles are wanted to hold the various 
ooHshes, stains, and their components. 

The pad with which French polish is applied is 
called the rubber. Without it the French polisher 
can do little in actual polishing, although he may not 
require it in the preliminary operations of oiling and 
staining. However simple in itself the rubber may 
be, it should be properly and carefully made of suitable 
materials; otherwise good work cannot be done with 
it. Those who have seen polishers at work may be 
inclined to infer that no great care is necessary, for a 
dirty rag covering an equally uninviting lump of 

wadding is usually 
seen. Examination 
will show the rubber 
to be more carefully 
made than might 
have been expected, 
and the expert pol- 
isher would probably 
prefer it to a nice 
clean-looking rubber 
such as a novice 
would choose. Nevertheless, a dirty rubber is not 
wanted, for dirt is fatal to first-class work; hence 
the polisher should keep his rubbers scrupulously 
clean. They will naturally get stained and discolored 
with the polish, but that is a very different matter 
from being dirty. Old rubbers are preferable to new 
ones, provided they have been prooerlv taken care of 
and not allowed to get haro. 

For flat surfaces or fretwork a wad may be preparec^ 
by using a strip of torn woolen cloth from I in. to 2 
in. wide. Cloth with a cut edge is not recommended 




Fig. 110 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



69 




Fia. Ill 



for this purpose, as it is too harsh. Roll the strip 
very tightly into a wad about I in., 2 in., or 3 in. 
diameter, according to the size of the work, and tie 
tightly round with fine twine (Fig. no). This will 
give as nearly as possible a rubber resembling Fig. in. 
This wad is put into a double thickness 
of linen cloth, and the ends aje gath- 
ered up like the ends of a pudding- 
cloth; they are not tied, but are grasped 
as a hand-piece while being used. This 
form of rubber would, however, be use- 
less for bodying up mouldings, beads, quirks, moulded 
handrails, newel posts, etc., and when polishing large 
mahogany doors or other framed furniture it would be 
impossible to get well into the corners of sunk panels, 
as in Fig. 112. 

A well-shaped, soft, pliable rubber, with its rag 

covering free from 



creases, is to a practical 
French polisher equiva- 
lent to a sharp, finely 
set smoothing plane in 
the hands of a cabinet- 
maker. With such a 
rubber, made of wad- 
ding, one is enabled to 
get into corners, round 
turned work, and up to 
the edges of mouldings in a manner impossible with a 
hard, round rubber. To make it, take a sheet of wad- 
ding — this is 9 in. wide — and tear off a piece 6 in. long; 
this will form a conveniently-sized rubber, suitable for 
most work; but for small work use one of smaller size. 
Double the wadding, making it 6 in. by 4)4 in. 




70 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Squeeze this in the hand, keeping the skin unbroken, 
till in shape it nearly resembles half a bear. The 
rubber should then be charged with polish, and 
covered with a piece of soft, clean rag. In folding 
the rag, twist it on the upper side of the rubber. 
Each additional twist will bring it to a sharper point 
and cause the polish to ooze through its surface. It is 
not necessary to put a rag covering on the rubbers first 
used. The rubber must be kept free from creases, 
otherwise it will cause the surface to which it is applied 
to be stringy or full of ridges. 

Though rags have been mentioned as suitable for 
the outer covering or casing of the pad, some care in 
their selection is necessary. A piece with a seam 
across it would never do for a rubber, and anything 
which would tend to scratch the film of polish as it is 
being laid or worked on in the final operation of 
spiriting off must be carefully avoided. They must be 
either cotton or linen, and ought to be perfectly soft 
and fine or, at any rate, free from knots or lumps. 
Some polishers advise the exclusive use of linen, but 
this is a needless restriction. It may be mentioned 
that new material may be used as well as rags. To 
render this suitable, all traces of the sizing and 
stiffening with which it may have been finished must 
be removed by a thorough washing. 

Any material to be used for a polishing rubber must 
be thoroughly well dried. Indeed, the necessity of 
avoiding damp cannot be too much insisted on. With 
regard to the substance of the rubber, white wadding 
is the best to use, and this is readily obtainable from 
any upholsterer or chemist. It may be purer if got 
from the latter, but it is certainly much dearer than 
any reasonable upholsterer would charge for something 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 71 

equally suitable. Wadding bought from an upholsterer 
has a thin skin on one or both sides, according to 
whether it has been split or not. This skin must be 
removed, leaving nothing but the soft cotton. For a 
few cents enough ought to be obtainable to last a con- 
siderable time. It may be useful to know that, if it is 
clean, the raw material used in cotton manufacturing 
districts will do as well as the finest wadding. 
Cotton flock, used by upholsterers as a stuffing for 
mattresses, chairs, etc., is not suitable for polishing, 
except perhaps for the coarsest work. Even for this 
it should not be used if anything better is available. 
Rubbers composed entirely of flannel are occasionally 
recommended for special kinds of work. It is doubt- 
ful if there is any advantage in using flannel, except 
for large, flat surfaces, which can be got over more 
quickly with a large rubber than with a small one. 
The novice is advised to use the wadding rubber, and 
to become an expert polisher with it before experi- 
menting with anything else. 

The size of the rubber will, to some extent, depend 
on the nature of the work, but that above given may 
be regarded as generally suitable. A very large rubber 
is not advisable at first, and the polisher, as he gains 
experience, must be guided by circumstances. In 
handling it, moreover, the polisher will be equally 
guided; a rubber of moderate dimensions is usually 
held by the tips of the thumb and fingers, but the 
polisher will probably find a large rubber can be more 
conveniently used by holding it in the palm of the 
hand. 

The rubber must be charged with polish for use, and 
some care will have to be exercised in doing this. 
The covering of the rubber is opened so that a little 



72 THE UP-TO-DATE 

polish can be dropped on the wadding. A convenient 
way of doing this is to have the polish in a bottle, the 
cork of which has a channel or notch cut in it to allow 
only a few drops to escape at a time. Some polishers 
dip a portion of the rubber into the polish, but the 
other method is more generally adopted. It must not 
be saturated; only enough polish to moisten the 
wadding must be used, or what will appear through the 
rag covering when pressed. The rubber having been 
thus charged, gather up the edges of rag as before 
directed. Then, to distribute the polish equally, 
press the rubber moderately firmly into the palm of 
the other hand. The rubber ought now to be ready for 
application to the wood, which may be assumed to 

have been properly' 
prepared to receive 
its first coating of 
polish. 

At this stage the 
Fig. 113 principal thing is to 

get a good body of 
polish evenly spread on the wood. How this may 
best be done depends on circumstances; but if the 
desired result is obtained, the precise method is of 
secondary consequence. Let it be assumed that the 
work to be done is a small, flat surface. With moder- 
ate pressure on the rubber, quickly wipe over the entire 
surface, first with the grain of the wood, then across it. 
Then, without delay, go over it more minutely, the 
motion generally adopted for the rubber being shown 
in the illustrations (Figs. 113 and 1 14). At first the pres- 
sure should be gentle, but it should be increased as the 
polish gets worked in and the rubber drier, though at 
no time must the rubbing decline to scrubbing. 




HARDWOOD FINISHER 



73 



While the rubber is in contact with the wood it must 
be kept constantly in motion. An important point is 
not to allow the rubber to remain stationary on the 
woodwork during temporary absence or at the end of 
the day's work. As the rubber gets dry it must be 
recharged with polish, but let the novice beware of 
using this in excess. 

Old rubbers are better than new, so when done with 
they should be kept in an airtight receptacle, such as 
a tin canister or a biscuit box. When any job is 
finished, do not throw the rubber away under the 
impression that a 
rubber once laid aside 
becomes useless. 
This occurs only 
when it is left ex- 
posed to the air, be- 
cause then it hardens 
throughout. I f , a s 
stated, the rubbers 
are kept from the air, 
only the outside cov- 
ering will get dry and 

hard, and this can be readily softened by rubbing it in 
raw alcohol. 

Every time the rubber is wetted with polish it 
should be pressed in the palm of the left hand, which 
will equalize the polish. After the cover is put over, 
which should be some clean old cotton or print rags, 
the tip of the finger should be dipped in linseed oil 
and applied to rubber cover — just enough to keep it 
from sticking. As soon as the cover has a shiny 
appearance, it should be removed to a fresh place. 
As soon as the work has got a good body of polish on, 




Fig. 114 



74 THE UP-TO-DATE 

it should be set away for at least ten hours, to allow for 
the polish to sink, which always takes place. 

Before commencing to polish again, the work should 
be very carefully rubbed over with the finest glass- 
paper obtainable, taking care not to cut through the 
skin; then proceed as before. Be sure never to let the 
rubber stop in one place for an instant, as it will surely 
;ake off the polish to the bare wood and spoil the job. 
After the work has sufficient polish on, it should be 
allowed to stand three or four hours before spiriting 
off. 

The same rubber vv^ill do; only use spirits. Just 
damp the rubber, and cover three or four times double 
with cover, and rub very lightly over the work; but 
care must be taken not to make the rubber too wet, 
or the work will be spoiled. The same process will 
answer for pine or deal, only no filling is required, but 
a coat of clean patent size, before applying the polish. 

The ingredients for the above kind of work are quite 
numerous, but shellac, dissolved in alcohol, is the basis 
of all French polishes, and some finishers use thin 
shellac varnish without other admixture, slightly 
moistening the rubber with linseed oil to prevent 
stickiness and make it work smoothly. There is a 
great variety of admixtures and diversity in the 
proportion of ingredients, but the differences are not 
material. I subjoin a number of recipes. 

First and Best. — To one pint of spirits of wine add a 
quarter of an ounce of gum-copal, a quarter of an 
ounce of gum arable, and one ounce of shellac. 

Let the gums be well bruised, and sifted through a 
piece of muslin. Put the spirits and the gums together 
in a vessel that can be closely corked; place them 
near a warm stove, and frequently shake them. In 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 75 

two or three days they will be dissolved. Strain the 
mixture through a piece of muslin, and keep it tight 
corked for use. 

Next. — Take one ounce each of mastic, saridarac, 
seed lac, shellac, gum lac, and gum arabic; reduce 
them to powder; and add a quarter of an ounce of 
virgin wax; put the whole into a bottle, with one 
quart of rectified spirits of wine; let it stand twelve 
hours, and it will be fit for use. 

Another. — Put into a glass bottle one ounce of 
gum lac, two drachms of mastic in drops, four drachms 
of sandarac, three ounces of shellac, and half an 
ounce of gum dragon; reduce the whole to powder; 
add to it a piece of camphor the size of a nut, and 
pour on it eight ounces of rectified spirits of wine. 
Stop the bottle close, but take care, when the gums 
are dissolving, that it is not more than half full. 
Place near a warm stove until dissolved. 

Other French Polish Recipes. — One pint naphtha, y/2 
oz. orange shellac, yi oz. elima. Darken with red 
Sanders wood. 

To one pint of spirits of wine, add half an ounce of 
gum shellac, half an ounce of seed lac, and a quarter 
of an ounce of gum sandarac; submit the whole to a 
gentle heat, frequently shaking it, till the various 
gums are dissolved, when it is fit for use. 

Shellac, 6 oz. ; naphtha, i qt. ; sandarac, i oz.; 
benzoin, % oz. 

Three oz, shellac, ^2 oz. gum mastic pulverized, and 
I pt. methylated spirits of wine added. Let it stand 
till dissolved. 

Twelve oz. shellac, 2 oz. gum elima, 3 oz. gum copal, 
L gal. spirits of wine; dissolve. 

The f'H.'Vsi:^"^ must be well mixed and dissolved; 



^(i THE UP-TO-DATE 

pale shellac, 2^ lb.; 3 oz. mastic, 3 oz. sandarac, l 
gal spirits of wine. After the above is dissolved, add 

1 pt. copal varnish, 1% oz. shellac, ^ oz. gum juniper, 
^ oz. benzoin, J^ pt. methylated alcohol. 

A Good Polish. — To i pt. spirits of wine add, in fine 
powder, i oz. seed lac, 2 dr. gum guaiacum, 2 dr. 
dragons' blood, and 2 dr. gum mastic; expose them, 
in a vessel stopped close, to a moderate heat for three 
hours, until you find the gum dissolved; strain the 
whole into a bottle for use, with a quarter of a gill of 
the best linseed oil, to be shaken up well with it. 

This polish is more particularly intended for dark 
colored woods — for it is apt to give a tinge to light 
ones, as satinwood or airwood, etc. — owing to the 
admixture of the dragons' blood, which gives it a red 
appearance. 

A Polish That Will Stand Water.— Take i pt. spirits of 
wine, 2 oz. gum benzoin, }^ oz. gum sandarac, and Y^ 
oz. gum anime; these must be put into a stopped 
bottle, and placed either in a sand-bath or in hot water 
till dissolved; then strain the mixture, and, after 
adding about a quarter of a gill of the best clear 
poppy oil, shake it well up, and put it by for use. 

Prepared Spirits. — This preparation is useful for 
finishing after any of the foregoing recipes, as it adds 
to the luster and durability, as well as removes every 
defect, of the other polishes and it gives the surface a 
most brilliant appearance. 

Half a pint of the very best rectified spirits of wine, 

2 dr. shellac, and 2 dr. gum benzoin. Put these 
ingredients into a bottle, and keep it in a warm place 
till the gum is all dissolved, shaking it frequently; 
when cold, add two teaspoonfuls of the best clear white 
poppy oil; shake them well together, and it is fit for use, 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 7; 

This preparation is used in the same manner as the 
foregoing polishes; but, in order to remove all dull 
places, you may increase the pressure in rubbing. 

Polish for Turner's Work. — Dissolve i oz. sandarac in 
Yo, pt. spirits of wine; shave i oz. beeswax, and dissolve 
it in a sufficient quantity of spirits of turpentine to 
make it into a paste, add the former mixture to it by 
degrees; then, with a woolen cloth, apply it to the 
work while it is in motion in the lathe, and polish it 
with a soft linen rag; it will appear as if highly 
varnished. 

A French Polish Reviver. — Beat gum acacia and white 
of two eggs in a mortar until they amalgamate; then 
add ^ pt. raw linseed oil and best vinegar, 8 oz. 
methylated spirits of wine, i oz. hydrochloric acid and 
2 oz. muriate of antimony. They are to be rubbed on 
the surface of the furniture until dry, and will give a 
brilliant and lasting polish. 

It now remains to explain the several varieties of 
finishing in use; these are largely derived from the 
peculiai> qualities of the different varnishes used. 
Polishing varnishes, which are very hard and durable, 
are so called because their surface can be brought to a 
high luster by rubbing with the proper materials. 
Flowing or finishing varnishes contain more oil than 
polishing varnishes, dry more slowly, and are softer, 
but their peculiar qualities are brilliancy and dura- 
bility, fitting them for work requiring a brilliant gloss, 
such as veneered panels. Rubbing varnishes are those 
that dry sufficiently hard to admit of being rubbed to 
a smooth surface. Turpentine varnishes, being the 
cheapest variety, are employed for cheap work, such 
as common chairs, bedsteads, etc. 

Dead Finish is a term applied to the finish pro 



78 THE UP-TO-DATE 

duced by the reduction of any of the rubbing varnishes 
with powdered pumice-stone and raw linseed oil, the 
surface thus produced being left in the semi-lustrous 
state by om.itting the polishing process. It is no\\ 
more used than any other for body work, shellac 
varnish being generally employed because of its 
adaptation to the requirements of fine cabinet-work, 
and its properties of quick and hard drying. Copal, 
anime, and amber varnishes are also used, but are 
slower drying. The number of coats required depends 
somewhat upon the quality of the filler, but usually 
three coats, and sometimes less, are amply suffi- 
cient. 

Bodying In and Spiriting Off. — The term bodying, 
applied to the polisher's art, means coating the wood 
with a thin, evenly distributed layer of the polish. 
The way in which this is done greatly affects the 
appearance and the durability of the gloss. When the 
body is too thin, the gloss subsequently given to it 
may at first be beautiful, but as the polish sinks or 
perishes the gloss fades. When the body is too thick 
the gloss may appear all right, but the work is apt to 
look treacly^ as though varnish had been used; besides, 
a thick body impairs the pure tone of some woods. 
The high degree of excellence to which polishing is 
capable of being brought is seen only on the best 
cabinet-work. Polish on second-rate furniture or 
finish is generally in keeping with the inferior quality 
of the woodwork. The cheap, gaudy furniture which is 
often seen in shops must not be taken as models of 
polishing. The price paid for polishing is reduced, 
with the result that inferior polish is used and less time 
is spent on the Vvork. Although the best materials and 
the expenditure of time and labor will not insure good 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 79 

work b/ unpracticed hands, they are important factors, 
and it will be wise to use materials of good quality. 

To make a good average polish, neither too thick 
nor too thin, about six ounces of shellac to each pint 
of methylated or alcohol spirit will be required, but 
great exactitude in the proportions is not necessary. 
The proportions may vary according to the fancy of 
the polisher, and, to some extent, according to the 
nature of the work he is engaged on. If the polish 
turns out too thick, it can be thinned by adding more 
spirit; if too thin, the deficiency can be made up by 
adding more shellac. A rough-and-ready way of 
measuring the proportions is to half fill a bottle with 
the roughly broken shellac, and then fill up with 
ordinary methylated spirit. 

The shellac dissolves gradually, and the process is 
hastened by an occasional shaking or stirring with a 
stick. Heat is not necessary; indeed, the preparation 
of polish by heat is dangerous. 

Two kinds of polish are used. One, known as 
"white polish," is nearly colorless; the other is known 
as "brown polish," or simply "polish." The latter is 
always understood if unqualified by the word "white." 
White polish is made^ with white or bleached shellac; 
the other with ordinary orange or reddish-brown 
shellac. 

Either polish may be used on any kind of wood, 
except where great purity of tint is required. The 
white is to be preferred for all light woods, such as 
light oak, ash, sycamore, satin, etc., while the brown 
may be used on darker; but even on these, white 
polish is good, with the exception of mahogany, the 
only ordinary fine wood for which a decided preference 
might be given to brown polish. Under ordinary 



ao THE UP-TO-DATE 

circumstances, however, either polish may be used 
indiscriminately. The point as to brown or white 
polish for dark wood belongs to the higher branches 
ot the polisher's art. 

It will be seen that white polish is the more generally 
useful of the two, so those who do not care to keep 
both kinds may confine themselves to it. Through 
the slightly higher price of the bleached shellac, it 
costs a little more, but the extra cost is so small that it 
is hardly worth considering by those who use small 
quantities. Those who use polish in large quantities 
can have both kinds. 

Polish bought ready-made may be equal to that 
made at home from the recipe given, for there h 
nothing to prevent manufacturers using the same 
ingredients, and many of them do. Still, from the 
impossibility of knowing the ingredients in ready- 
made polish, there is some risk attending its use. 
From the price at which some polish is sold, it is fair 
to suppose that something cheaper than spirit or 
shellac has been used; and though good polish may be 
bought, it is better for the user to prepare his own, 
which can be depended on. Bought polish may be 
thoroughly good in every way — brilliant, clear, and 
durable — but those who are best able to judge generally 
prefer to make their own polish to do the best class 
of work. Prejudice may account for this preference. 

Manufacturers of polish assert that, in addition to 
shellac, certain gums or resins improve the quality of 
the polish, when used with knowledge and discretion. 
For instance, one gum may give increased elasticity, 
while another may harden the film; but for a good all- 
round polish, which can be relied on, many polishers 
assert that there is nothing to surpass a simple solution 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 8l 

of shellac and alcohol. A few approved formulae fot 
polishes have been given, so that those who feef 
inclined to do so may experiment for themselves. 
Shellac is the principal ingredient in nearly all. Those, 
persons who cannot polish with shellac and spirit, 
alone will not be able to do any better with the more 
complicated mixtures; therefore, no one should remain 
under the impression that he will do better if he 
works with another kind of polish. 

Enough having now been said about the material, 
we may proceed to the using of it for bodying. In 
the first place, the wood must be prepared by filling of 
one kind or another, and rubbed down smoothly with 
fine or worn glass-paper, in order to make it fit to 
receive the polish, for a high degree of finish cannor 
be got on a rough surface. The rubber, which consists 
of cotton wadding with a soft rag cover, with which 
the polish is applied, has been sufficiently treated on, 
so that nothing more need be said about it. Work, 
rubber, polish, and a little raw linseed oil being ready, 
bodying in may be proceeded with in the following 
way: 

Moisten the wadding with polish; put the rag cover 
on carefully, so that it is without folds or wrinkles. 
Dab the rubber into the palm of the left hand to dis- 
tribute the polish evenly, and cause it to moisten the 
rag at the bottom properly. Supposing the work is a 
panel or flat surface, the following will be found a 
good method of treating it, and it is one that is 
followed more or less closely by experienced 
polishers. 

Rub briskly across the grain to get the surface 
covered with polish; then by a series of circulai 
movements, as shown by the lines in Figs. 113 anc 



82 THE UP-TO-DATE 

114, go over the whole of the work. A moderate 
pressure should be applied, which should be increased 
gradually as the rubber dries, but the movement 
should at no time degenerate into mere scrubbing. 
In order that the rubber may work smoothly without 
sticking, a little raw linseed oil should be applied on 
the face of the rubber. The less of this used the 
better, and if it can be dispensed with altogether no 
harm will be done. To make the rubber work smoothly 
a very little will suffice; the tip of a finger, moistened 
with oil, and touched on the face of the rubber, is all 
that is required. The rubber must not be dipped in 
the oil, nor must the oil be dropped on it from a 
bottle, for by these means more oil would be applied 
than is necessary, and this would be fatal to good 
work. 

The only recognized oil used in French polishing is 
law linseed. This may be worked over the natural 
woods in the first place, to give them that peculiar 
tone that cannot be gained by other means; otherwise 
the less oil used the better for the durability of the 
work. Bear in mind that it forms no part of polish in 
itself, being used only to enable us to work the gums 
easily; thus, without its aid the polish rubber would be 
apt to stick or drag, thus breaking up the surface 
instead of leveling it. On any surface in which spirit 
varnish forms a part this will be particularly notice- 
able; and in any case, it is next to impossible to get 
that beautiful level surface gained by spiriting out 
unless a little oil is used. 

As the rubber dries, more polish must be applied to 
it, as was done in the first instance, with more oil as 
required. A small quantity of polish goes a long way, 
and the novice must carefully avoid making tne 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 83 

rfjbber wet. It should be no more than fairly 
moist. 

Many a beginner, noticing how tedious the work is 
with a dry rubber, may think that if he used more 
polish the desired result would be more quickly 
attained. If the object were merely to get the wood 
coated, Vhis might be the case; but the result of using 
too much polish would be that the shellac left by the 
quick evaporation of the spirit would be ridgy and 
irregular, instead of in a fine, even coating or body. 
Anything approaching a flow of polish from the 
rubber must be avoided. When the rubber is not 
sufficiently charged with polish, the labor of bodying 
up will be unduly protracted, or may be rendered 
impossible if no polish can be rubbed onto the wood. 

The first bodying-in process should be continued 
till it seems that the wood absorbs no more of the 
polish. There will be a perceptible gloss on its sur- 
face, but it will be streaky, and the rubber-marks will 
show very distinctly. All these marks will be removed 
later on. It may be thought that, if the polish is too 
thick or too thin, the result will be very much the 
same as if the rubber were too wet or too dry. The 
principal objection to having the polish too thin is 
that it will take more time in working a good body on 
the wood. It will, however, be better to risk this 
rather than to have the polish too thick. An 
experienced polisher would soon detect fault in either 
direction by the way in which the polish works, but the 
novice must be on the look-out for irregularities in the 
shape of lumps or ridges, and, with a little attention, 
ht will have no difficulty in avoiding serious mishaps. 

Let the work stand for at least a day, carefully 
covered up from dust; ^n e^eamining it the body will 



84 THE UP-TO-DATE 

be found to have altered in appearance to an extent 
which will depend upon how much the polish ha:i 
sunk into the wood. The work must be again bodied 
up as before, always remembering to use as little oil 
as possible. Then it will be again laid aside, and the 
bodying process repeated till the polish no longer 
seems to sink in, even after the work has lain aside for 
a few days. When this stage is reached, the bodying 
may be considered complete, and the work ready for 
the first polishing operations. Before proceeding to 
consider these, however, the novice will do well to 
note the following hints: 

The number of times the work will require to be 
bodied depends on circumstances. Fine, close-grained 
woods will not require so many as the more open 
kinds, such as oak, ash, mahogany, etc.; but for the 
best work, which is intended to be as durable as can 
be, it need rarely exceed four. An interval of one or 
more days may elapse between the successive bodies, 
the chief object of waiting being to let them sink as 
much as they will. If, after the work has been laid 
aside for a few days, the polish has not sunk at all, no 
advantage would be gained by giving it another body 
It is very seldom that the first body is enough, but 
often only one body is applied, where either low price 
or limited time will not allow of more; so those who 
wish to do polishing need not think the process can- 
not be hurried. 

Still, imperfect bodying is not advisable, as such 
tvork will soon want touching up. When work is 
made merely to sell, one body, and that of the 
slightest, is sufficient— from the seller's point of view, 
if not from the buyer's. Between the bodying?, 
r^specially after the first and second, the surface of the 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 85 

work should be rubbed down with fine glass-paper— 
not to rub the body off, but just enough to smooth the 
surface. It may here be remarked that pumice 
powder, used in moderation, is useful for working 
down inequalities of surface. Sandpapering has been 
recommended as necessary after the first and second 
bodies, but the process may be done after any others, 
though it should not be required if the work has been 
skillfully done. In fact, the final bodying up may be 
regarded almost as the beginning of the spiriting off. 
Before beginning to work a fresh body on a previous 
one, it is as well to wash the surface gently with 
lukewarm water, not using too much of it, in order to 
remove the grease and allow the rubber to work freely. 
The water must be thoroughly dried up before apply- 
ing the rubber. In moderation the washing can never 
do harm, and is, generally, an advantage, though not 
absolutely necessary. When a long interval has 
elapsed, the washing should never be omitted, as dust 
will settle on the work; and it need scarcely be said 
that dust should not be rubbed into the polish. 

When bodying up, polishers should see that their 
hands are clean and free from old polish, which is so 
often seen on them. If they are soiled with old polish 
or shellac, bits are apt to flake off and destroy the 
surface of new work. This may be an appropriate 
place to say that any polish which sticks to the hands 
may be washed away with hot water and soda, or with 
alcohol. 

The body should be thin, as it is not so much the 
quantity of body on the wood as its quality that is 
important; it is also essential that it should be applied 
with sufficient intervals between the successive bodies 
to allow of sinkage. 



86 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Another important matter is to dry the rubbers well 
by working them on each body till dry, and not to 
moisten them frequently. By this means the film ot 
shellac is kept thin. Neither a wet nor a dry rubber 
should on any account be allowed to stand on a surface 
being polished. The rubber must be kept moving, 
and should glide gradually on to the work, not be 
dabbed down on it. In the initial stages of bodying 
care in this respect is not so important as later on, 
when it is absolutely necessary. The same precaution 
should be used when lifting the rubber from the work. 

For the guidance of beginners, it may be stated that 
if they take care of the edges of the work the rest of 
the surface will look after itself. The reason is that 
the edges are apt to be somewhat neglected, and the 
polish to be less there than elsewhere. The secret of 
a good, durable polish depends primarily on a good 
body, and this, in its turn, on sufficient time having 
been allowed for sinkage. 

The final operation in French polishing, by which 
the gloss is put on the body previously applied, is 
known as spiriting off. In this operation rubber marks 
and smears of all kinds are removed, and the beautiful 
surface, known as French polish, is the result. Body- 
ing is important so far as durability is concerned, but 
spiriting is more so with regard to finish. If the 
worker fails in spiriting, his previous efforts will, to a 
great extent, have been in vain. Disregarding staining, 
darkening, and other processes, with which a good 
polisher should be acquainted, the spiriting is perhaps 
the most severe test of skill in the whole process of 
polishing; and a man who can manage this part of the 
work really well may be considered a competent 
polisher. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 8; 

The first operation to be described in the process of 
spiriting off partakes very much of the nature of body, 
ing in. At the beginning it is bodying, and at the end 
spiriting. The two processes merge one into the other. 
There is no abrupt break, as between filling and bodying, 
except for the intermediate stage, although the processes 
are well defined, both in character and purpose. This 
intermediate stage is not always practiced, but it is rec- 
ommended when good work is wanted. Briefly, spiriting 
off consists in washing the bodied surface with methyl- 
ated spirit. This being understood, the final bodying up, 
or first spiriting off, whichever this process may be 
called, consists in gradually reducing the quantity of 
polish in the rubber, and supplying its place with spirit. 
The polish is gradually reduced by the addition of spirit 
till all the polish has been worked out of the rubber. 
The rubber may be charged, first with three parts 
polish and one part spirit; next time equal quantities; 
the third time three parts spirit and one part polish; 
and the fourth charging will be with spirit only. It 
does not follow that these proportions need be strictly 
observed, nor are they so in practice, but this example 
illustrates the process. The last rubber will be almost 
free from polish, and it should be worked till it is dry, 
or nearly so. 

At this stage spiriting proper may begin, and a fresh 
rubber should be used. It need not be a new one, but 
it should be one which has been used only for spiriting, 
and which has no polish on it. It will be better if it 
has three or four coverings of rag on its face, which 
can be removed as they dry. If only one cover is used 
the spirit is apt to evaporate too quickly. The spirit 
in the rubber has a tendency to partially dissolve the 
shellac or body on the wood. This it does to a very 



88 THE UP-TO-DATE 

limited extent, unless the rubber is made too wet, when 
there is danger of not only spiriting and smoothing the 
surface, but of actually washing away the body. This 
mishap must be carefully guarded against. There 
should be enough spirit to allow the surface of the 
body to be softened and smoothed, but no more, and 
the rubbing should be uniform, and not more in one 
place than in another. There is hardly any likeli- 
hood of the novice erring by using too little spirit, so 
he may be reminded that the less of it there is in the 
rubber at a time the better. The rubbing should be 
gentle at first, becoming harder as the spirit dries off, 
and oil must not be used on the rubber face, for when 
there is oil either on the rubber or on the work, the 
polish cannot be brought up. 

The chief cause of failure lies in getting the spirit 
rubber too wet, and so softening and tearing up the 
gums. Many meet with success by dispensing with it, 
using instead a swab of clean, soft rag, fairly damp 
(not wet) with alcohol. 

If the spiriting-off process is being done correctly 
the gloss will soon begin to appear, and when it 
seems approaching a finished condition, the rubber 
ought to be moved only in the direction of the grain, 
and not across it nor with circular motion. The final 
touches should be given with the soft rubber rag alone, 
care being taken not to scratch the surface, which is 
now softened by the action of the spirit. The surface 
will gradually harden, but for a time it should be 
handled with care, and nothing be allowed to comt in 
contact with it, or it is very likely to be marked. It 
should also be protected from dust, for any settling on 
it may be retained by the polish, the luster of which 
would certainly suffer. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 8r 

Hardwood finishers, and perhaps dealers in furniture 
who do not keep an experienced polisher, or who may 
not be able to get their work done out, may b 
reminded that, circumstances permitting, polished 
work should be wiped over with a spirit-rubber an houi 
or two before it is finished, to freshen it up. If the 
surface is at all soft, neither packing mats, nor any^ 
thing else likely to injure it, should be allowed to come- 
in contact with it. The polishing on many things sent 
long journeys is often greatly disfigured from mat and 
other markings, but they are easily touched up on 
arrival at their destination. 

Some polishers make use of a glaze in order to kill 
lie oil, just before spiriting off, which is made as 
foliows: 

Gum-benzoin, 6 oz. , dissolved in alcohol spirit I pt. 
Gums other than that mentioned may be substituted in 
order to cheapen the glaze for commercial purposes, 
or to suit the fancy of polishers who make up their own 
solutions. The glaze is used chiefly when leveling 
down spirit varnish, and for the purpose of imparting 
a bright finish to mouldings. As practical workers have 
always at hand rubbers that are specially charged with 
white polish, brown or red polish, and another rubber 
for glaze, a clear, bright finish on some kinds of work 
may be easily gained by passing the glaze rubber along 
the edges, sunk portions, or even over the whole of a 
flat surface just before clearing out with the spirit pa-i. 
The workman must not, however, suppose that such 
treatment will entirely kill the oil, if an excessive 
quantity ot oil has been used. Any excess of oh 
should be cleared off beforehand; or, better still, 
entirely avoided, if a good, lasting quality of work is 
desired. 



90 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Glazing, though an imitation, has a recognized 
acceptance among polishers. It is remarkably con- 
venient occasionally, and in some cases possesses an 
advantage over spiriting, so that it may fairly be 
classed among the ordinary processes of polishing. 
When done in moderation, glazing is as useful on 
furniture carving as the application of spirit varnish. 
Such work is commonly said, and justly, to be French 
polished. The real objection to glaze finish is that, 
though at first the appearance is equal, it is not so 
durable as the other. Glaze may be said to be even 
superior to badly spirited finish, and here is the chief 
claim it has for notice. It is seldom that a casual 
polisher can manage to do spiriting thoroughly, for the 
reason that he has not sufificient opportunity of acquir- 
ing practice. 

Nevertheless, finishing by means of glaze is not so 
good as the method by spiriting, when the latter is 
well done, and should be considered as a means of 
getting the same effect easily and quickly — an 
imitation, in fact, of the real thing; the difference 
between the spirit and glaze finishes is that in the one 
case the effect is produced by friction, in. the other by 
the addition of a thin, fine varnish to the surface of 
the body of polish. In the former case the polish 
itself is polished; in the latter it is varnished with a 
mixture known commonly as glaze, but to which other 
names are sometimes given. 

Among polishers who command a fair price for 
their work, glaze is of comparatively limited applica- 
tion, and is confined to those parts where the spirit' 
rubber cannot be conveniently used, or where its use 
is not necessary. Instances of such may be found in 
chair-rails and various parts of the frame. These are 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 91 

usually polished, more or less, before the chair is 
upholstered, or, at any rate, before the outer covering 
is put on, the finishing being almost necessarily done 
last of all. The less the chair is handled by the 
polisher the better, especially if the covering is a 
delicate one, for there is less risk of injury with one 
or two wipes over with the glaze rubber than with the 
more prolonged spiriting. 

Glaze may be used with advantage in inlaid work, 
where the inlay is slightly, though perhaps not 
intentionally, higher than the surrounding wood. In 
such a case it is better to resort to glaze than to finish 
with the spirit rubber. On fretwork, also, glaze may 
often be used with advantage, and, generally, it is 
unobjectionable on parts which are not subject to wear 
and tear. It will stand a moderate amount of handling, 
but not so much as good, hard spirited-off polish, and 
the luster is not so durable. 

Glaze, under one or other of its different names, 
may be bought ready-made, but, for reasons similar to 
those given in connection with French polish, the 
home-made article is to be recommended. The prep- 
aration of glaze is simple, the ingredients being gum- 
benzoin and methylated spirit. After the benzoin is 
dissolved, the solution should be strained through 
muslin to free it from foreign matter. The proportions 
may vary, but those given for polish do very well, and 
with the substitution of crushed benzoin for shellac the 
process of making is exactly the same. 

Gum-benzoin differs greatly in quality, but the best 
should be used by the polisher. Compared with lac it 
is expensive, so that the saving which is attributed to 
its use is mainly in time, which is money, at least from 
a trade point of view. Cheap benzoin is not to be 



92 THE UP-TO-DATE 

relied on, and in a strange place an experienced 
polisher would look with suspicion on any offered at a 
very low price, however satisfactory its appearance. 
Where material is liable to adulteration, the best way 
to avoid imposition is to go to a reliable dealer and to 
pay a fair price. 

Glaze, as used by French polishers, can be bought 
ready-made at most color stores, as patent glaze; it 
improves with age. To make the genuine article, 
dissolve 6 or 8 ounces of best gum-benzoin in I pint of 
alcohol spirit. Keep it in a closely stoppered bottle, 
otherwise the spirit will evaporate quickly. 

Glaze may be applied with cither rubber, sponge, or 
brush; in most cases the rubber is most suitable and is 
most commonly used. It is made in the ordinary way 
as used for polish, but it must not be applied with 
pressure. The glaze is painted on rather than rubbed 
into the work, which must have been previously bodied 
in. There seems to be an idea that glaze or something 
put on bare wood will cause a gloss right off; but 
nothing will do this. A polish can only be got on 
wood by varnish, or by bodying-in and polish. 

When using glaze, the rubber should be made wetter 
than for polish or spirit; but still there should not be 
sufficient to drip from it. It should glaze or wet the 
wood when the rubber is very lightly pressed on it. 
One or two wipes in the direction of the grain of the 
wood, with a somewhat quick motion, will put the 
glaze on. Always let the glaze dry before applying 
the rubber again to the same place. The coats may 
be repeated till the gloss is satisfactory, but the film 
of glaze should never be made a thick one. 

If preferred, a sponge may be used exactly as a 
rubber would be, but it is questionable if there is any 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 93 

advantage gained; it is rather a matter of fancy. 
When a brush is used, the glaze may be applied as a 
varnish pure and simple. With a brush a mixture of 
glaze and French polish, either white or brown, 
according to the work, in equal quantities, may be used 
with advantage. 

Glaze that is not so satisfactory in appearance as it 
should be, may sometimes be improved by passing a 
spirit-rubber lightly over it, though this should be done 
with great caution, to avoid washing it off. When 
carefully and skillfully done, there can be little doubt 
that a glazed surface may be often, if not always, 
improved by slightly spiriting it. 

To glaze a wide surface, see that it is free from dull 
streaks and ridges and oil, and the rubber soft and free 
from fluff. Apply the glaze as evenly as possible, 
going over the surface several times, until the rubber 
is nearly dry; then, with the smallest quantity of oil 
and a little spirits, go over the glaze, very lightly at 
first, varying the direction of the rubber to avoid ridges. 
A dull, even surface may be obtained by adding one- 
third to one-half of sandarac to the solution of 
benzoin, and using the rubber only damp — not 
saturated. 

Old French polished work may often be revived by 
being lightly gone over with glaze after the surface has 
been washed and cleaned with warm water. This 
treatment is often considerably better than that 
commonly adopted with furniture pastes, polishes, 
creams, and revivers of various kinds. 

Wax Polishing. — Although the beauty of most 
furniture woods is enhanced to the highest degree by 
French polishing when well done, there are other 
processes which, though not capable of being brought 



94 THE UP-TO-DATE 

to such perfection, are much simpler. Among these 
is wax polishing. This mode of finishing is remark- 
ably easy, both as regards materials and manipulation, 
and the unskilled novice can manage to wax-polish 
almost as well as an expert. It is, therefore, a suitable 
process for the beginner. 

Though any wood may be treated by waxing, it is 
generally confined to oak, especially after this has been 
darkened by fumigation with ammonia. The appear- 
ance of oak so finished is comparatively dull, but it has 
an attractiveness which French polish does not possess 
for all eyes. 

For antique oak furniture — whether genuine or 
imitation — wax is the best finish, though varnish is 
often used. Wax polish, though it may not give the 
same amount of gloss, is clearer and finer. Varnish 
clogs the wood, and is apt to give a treacly look to any 
piece of furniture finished with it. 

Mahogany may very appropriately be finished by 
wax polish, and for many purposes it may be superior 
to the dulled French polish so often seen. The top of 
a dining-table is apt to be rendered unsightly from 
hot plates or dishes injuring the polished surfaces. 
The heat burns or blisters the hardened shellac of the 
French polish, and a finish which is not so liable to 
disfigurement is preferable; this is found in wax polish. 
Usually, dining-table tops (unless French polished) are 
simply oil polished. Waxing is, however, less tedious, 
and at least as suitable for the purpose, and the readi- 
ness with which an accidental marking can be obliter- 
ated renders it particularly useful. 

Wood stained black, to produce so-called ebony, 
may be wax polished. The result is certainly a closer 
approximation to the appearance of real ebony than 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 95 

when the work is French polished in the usual way. 
By polishing fretwork articles with wax they may 
easily be made to look better than many of them do 
when unskillfully French polished. 

Though it has been said that any wood may be wax 
polished, there can be no question that this process 
answers best on the more coarsely-grained woods, 
such as oak and ash; for pine and other light woods of 
close texture it is not so well suited, unless they have 
been previously stained. 

The ingredients for wax polish are, in the simplest 
mixture, beeswax and turpentine. Resin and Venice 
turpentine are occasionally added. Resin is added 
with the intention of hardening the surface; but pro- 
vided the wax be of good quality, these additions are 
quite unnecessary, if not injurious, and a good result 
should be got from wax and turps. 

Wax and turpentine alone are all the materials 
necessary to make a good wax polish, and when any- 
thing else enters into the composition the mixture is 
one of a fancy character. It is not proposed to discuss 
the qualities of beeswax offered for sale, and the 
polisher must decide what kind he gets. Some advo- 
cate the use of fine white wax, and possibly a better 
finish may sometimes be got with it than with the ordi- 
nary yellow wax, which, however, is the kind generally 
used; the only occasions when it might not be so good 
as the white are when extreme purity of tone is 
required for a light wood. Wood perfectly white is, • 
however, seldom wax polished. 

The way in which wax polish is prepared depends a 
good deal on the proportions of the materials. For a 
liquid polish, shred the wax finely, and pour the tur- 
pentine over it, leaving the two till they are incor- 



96 THE UP-TO-DATE 

porated. Cold turpentine will dissolve wax slowly, 
but a more expeditious method is to melt the wax by 
heat, and before it has time to solidify pour the tur- 
pentine into it. Caution is necessary when melting 
wax, and on no account should the turpentine be 
poured into the wax while it is still on the fire. With 
ordinary care there is no danger, and the possibility of 
a mishap is suggested merely for the benefit of those 
who might otherwise overlook the inflammable charac- 
ter of turpentine vapor. Should the mixture be either 
too thick or too thin, there will be no trouble in alter- 
ing its consistency afterwards. 

To thin a mass which is too stiff, a very moderate 
warming, by placing the bottle in hot water, will reduce 
it to a more liquid form, as the turpentine already in 
it facilitates the change, and more turpentine is added. 
To stiffen the mixture, wax should be melted separately, 
and the original mixture added to it. The heat of the 
freshly melted wax will probably be sufficient to cause 
all the materials to mix. In any case, the wax should 
be thoroughly melted before the turpentine is added, 
as a lumpy mixture is neither pleasant to work with 
nor conducive to good finish. The natural tendency 
of a wax polishing mixture, exposed to the air, is to 
stiffen, on account of the evaporation of the turpen- 
tine. A considerable time must elapse before there is 
an appreciable alteration, and the fact that a change 
does go on, slowly, is mentioned to remind polishers 
that if they have a considerable quantity of the mix- 
ture standing over, they must not expect it to retain its 
original consistency unless kept in a closed vessel, 
such as a tightly-corked bottle. 

A hint for those who think that the more ingredients 
a mixture contains the better it must be, and who are 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 97 

not satisfied unless there is a certain amount of resJn 
in their wax polishing paste: Always melt the resin 
first, and add the wax gradually, and constantly stir. 
Whether resin be used or not, the mixture should be 
allowed to get quite cold before it is applied to the 
work. 

Although the consistency of wax polish varies con- 
siderably, the comparative merits of different degrees 
of stiffness or fluidity must be considered, so that an 
intelligent conception of the polisher's aim may be 
arrived at. Suppose a piece of beeswax, without any 
admixture of turpentine, is rubbed on a piece of 
smooth, flat wood. Some of the wax adheres to the 
surface, which, when friction is applied, becomes 
glossy or polished. The labor, however, is consider- 
able, and though dry wax may do on a flat surface, 
when mouldings or carvings are to be treated, the diffi- 
culties in the waj'- of satisfactory application are con- 
siderable. The remedy is to soften the wax so that it 
may be got into all parts of the work. Melted wax 
might do, but in putting it on to the wood it becomes 
cold, and consequently reverts to its original stiffness. 
We have then to get the wax to a fair working consist* 
ency by means of some suitable solvent, which turpen- 
tine has proved to be. It is cleanly, inexpensive, and 
evaporates sufficiently quickly, besides mixing well 
with the wax. Some polishers prefer what others 
might think an excess of turpentine. When a stiff 
paste is used, the wax is apt to be deposited in excess- 
ive quantity, necessitating a considerable amount of 
rubbing, in places, to remove it. A fluid polish spreads 
the wax much more evenly, but no gloss can be 
obtained til' the turpentine has disappeared, either 
evaporated or been absorbed by the wood. When the 



98 THE UP-TO-DATE 

polish has been laid evenly over the work, this does 
not take long; so a thin mixture may be considered 
preferable to a very stiff one. A paste of about the 
consistency of butter in hot weather, might be regarded 
as a medium. Those who use a wax polish which 
could be poured would consider this stiff, while others 
who add very little turpentine, or who believe in resin, 
would consider it thin. A thick mixture or a thin one 
may be used, the result depending more on the manip- 
ulation of the material than on the material itself; and 
this manipulation may next be considered. 

In the application of wax polish there is almost as 
great a variety in practice as in proportion of ingredi- 
ents. The great thing is to have the wax — the turpen- 
tine is merely the vehicle for conveying this — evenly 
and thinly distributed, and so long as this is done it is 
of small consequence how it is managed. To spread 
the wax with, some use a piece of rag, while others 
prefer a stiff brush specially made for the purpose, and 
both get equally good results. After the wax has been 
spread the polish is obtained by friction, and the more 
you rub the brighter the polish will be. The brush or 
cloth used to rub the wax into the wood should not be 
employed to give the finishing touches. In this final 
friction it is essential that the cloth or brush used be 
perfectly dry, as if it is at all damp no polished surface 
can be produced. The final polish is best done with a 
perfectly clean rubber, and three sets of cloths or rub- 
bers may be used. With the first the mixture is to be 
rubbed on the wood, with the second it is to be rubbed 
off till a fair amount of polish is got, while with the 
third the rubbing should be continued till the surface 
is as bright as it can be got. 

The directions which have been g^iven should enable 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



99 



any one to wax-polish wood successfully. Hard dry 
rubbing, with energetic application, is at least as Impor. 
tant as the wax and turpentine; for, though more sim- 
ple than the French polishing process, it is more 
laborious. 

Oil Finishing and Dry Shining. — The following descrip- 
tion of the methods of oil polishing and dry shining 
is taken largely from an English work on the subject, 
and may be depended upon as being fairly correct and 
up to date: 

The simple process of oil polishing must now receive 
attention; and there is still something to admire in a 
comparatively dull oiled surface. The process simply 
consists of rubbing in linseed oil and polishing with a 
soft rag. The oiling and polishing must be continued 
at intervals till the requisite shine is obtained. To get 
the best results takes time and friction. Oil polishing 
is not difficult, but it is decidedly fatiguing and 
tedious. The more the surface is rubbed the better, 
and the process may be extended over some weeks. 
Patience and energetic application are still more essen- 
tial than with wax polishing, for to get even the sem- 
blance of a polish or gloss within a week or two with 
the aid of oil must not be expected. How long does it 
take to finish a thing properly with oil? It may be 
said the work is never finished. An oiled surface will 
always bear more rubbing than it has had, and will not 
be deteriorated by friction; still from one to two 
months should suffice to get a good polish, which will 
be durable according to the amount of labor bestowed 
upon it during that time. This is more time than can 
be devoted to the finishing touches of a piece of furni- 
ture generally nowadays, so it may almost be consid- 
ered that oil polishing is an obsolete process. 



loo THE UP-TO-DATE 

Still, it does not follow that because the process is 
too long to be remunerative in ordinary work it should 
not be worthy of attention, especially as it has merits 
which recommend it where speed is not a primary con- 
sideration. One great advantage of it is that it is 
much more durable than either French or wax polish; 
it does not blister by heat like the former, nor spoil 
with water to such an extent as the latter, with which 
in general appearance it may be compared. It is 
because it does not blister by heat that it is especially 
useful. An ordinary French polished dining-table top 
shows the damage caused by hot dishes laid on it, 
unless great care has been taken. On an oil polished 
dining-table top the same hot dishes might be placed 
almost with impunity; and it is chiefly dining-table 
tops that have prevented oil polishing becoming quite 
extinct. Though the whole of a table, or anything 
else, may be polished with oil, it is usual, even when 
the top is oiled, to polish the legs and frame otherwise. 

Linseed oil is the only material used in pure oil fin- 
ish, but other ingredients have been used, till it is 
difficult to recognize the distinction between oil polish- 
ing and French polishing. The two processes may 
overlap to an almost indefinite extent, but with these 
we have, at present at any rate, nothing to do, and to 
discuss them might only tend to confuse the novice. 
Authorities differ on the state in which the linseed oil 
should be used, some recommending boiled, others 
raw, and others various proportions of the two. For 
ordinary work boiled linseed oil is perhaps the better, 
but this is not intended to imply that those who prefer 
raw oil are wrong; therefore any oil polisher who has 
an inclination for some fancy mixture of boiled and 
raw oils can use it. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER loi 

The treatment is very much the same as in wax pol- 
ishing. Il consists in rubbing the oil well into the 
wood, not saturating or flooding, but scrubbing it, and 
then rubbing long and hard. The process may be 
repeated almost indefinitely, daily or at longer inter- 
vals, till a polish which is deemed sufficient appears. 
For example, take a table top, rub some oil well into 
it, and then polish with a rubber formed by wrapping 
some baize, felt, or similar material round a brick or 
other suitable block, the purpose of which is, by its 
weight, to some extent to relieve the polisher from 
using his muscles in applying pressure. The rubbing 
should be continued till the surface of the wood is dry. 
The only perceptible difference in the top will be the 
darkened appearance caused by the oil, as little or no 
gloss will appear at first. By repeating the operation, 
however, a polish will come up gradually, and a sur- 
face which in the opinion of many is superior to that 
of French polish will be the ultimate result. Should 
the polish sweat, some methylated spirit may be 
rubbed in. This will dry the surface without spoiling 
the polish. 

Oil polishing is hardly suitable for anything but 
plain work, on account of the labor required; but any 
piece of work can be so polished if the necessary time 
and labor be given to it. Even when it is not 
deemed practicable to bring up a polish with oil, a 
very pleasing finish may be given to a piece of work by 
merely rubbing it with oil. The color is enriched to 
an extent which perhaps would hardly be credited by 
those who have not had frequent opportunities of see- 
ing wood in the white and again after being oiled. In 
choice mahogany especially the improvement is very 
marked. Light oak is also greatly improved in tone. 



102 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Fretworkers who are not proficient in French {xjlish- 
ing would be more satisfied with the appearance of 
anything they make if they simply oiled it instead of 
coating it with shellac, which has to serve for French 
polish. 

Dry shining will be found a simple process after the 
ordinary methods of French polishing have been mas- 
tered. Finishing work by dry shining is the crudest 
and simplest way in which a gloss can be got on the 
surface of wood by means of a thin varnish of shellac 
and methylated spirit. It must not be mistaken for 
varnishing, as this process is ordinarily understood, for 
it is distinctly a process of French polishing. Even 
those who have managed to do bodying-up and spirit- 
ing-off, or even glazing, will find the operation of dry 
shining simple in comparison. It is the nearest 
approach to varnishing by means of a rubber, instead 
of a brush, that polishers practice. The wood is var- 
nished with ordinary French polish, applied by means 
of the polisher's special appliance — the rubber. 

Dry shining, unlike glazing, is not in any degree a 
substitute for the difficult process of spiriting-off, and 
those who think to get a high degree of finish on their 
work by means of dry shining may give up the illu- 
sion. When a really good finish is wanted, French 
polishing, as it is ordinarily understood, should be 
chosen, for there is no efficient substitute by which a 
like result can be got. 

Dry shining can be used in any position where a high 
degree of finish is not necessary or customary. It is 
useful for finishing inside work — such as the insides of 
boxes, drawers, cabinets, and interior parts generally — 
and is often seen on the fronts of drawers and trays 
enclosed in a wardrobe. The chief advantages in con- 



HARDWOOD FINISHER lOS 

nection with it are that it can be done expeditiously, 
and therefore cheaply; that it sufficiently closes the 
grain of the wood to prevent dust getting in and clog- 
ging it; and that it gives a certain degree of finish 
which wood, left in the white or altogether unpolished 
does not possess. 

The wood is bodied-in without any preparatory fill- 
ing, but otherwise precisely in the manner as already 
directed. It is not customary to take such precau- 
tions to get up a good body as there recommended. 
A better description of the process is to say that the 
wood is wiped over with the polish rubber; not much 
trouble is usually taken to do more than get the pre- 
liminary body worked on. There is no reason why the 
first body should not be allowed to sink, and the article 
then be rebodied if necessary. Much bodying-in would 
make the work almost as hard as that involved in ordi- 
nary French polishing, so that ordinarily the bodying- 
in dry shining is done more quickly. 

When the bodying-in has been done to the satisfac- 
tion of the polisher, the rubber is charged with French 
polish, rather more fully than was recommended for 
bodying. Instead of being rubbed all over the wood 
in any direction, it is wiped over in the direction of 
the grain from end to end of the piece, very much in 
the manner mentioned in connection with glazing. 
The rubber may be moved backwards and forwards till 
dry, but a better way under ordinary circumstances is 
to let the polish deposited by each rub dry before going 
over the same place again. When using the rubber in 
finishing, it should have no oil; and if the former of 
these two methods is adopted it will be difficult to 
prevent the polish dragging, so the easier course 
should be adopted. 



104 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Repolishing and Reviving. — Having once mastered 
the tundamental principle of polishing, it is a com- 
paratively easy task to give to a plain piece of wood a 
level and lustrous surface; and, by the use of stains 
that can be bought ready prepared, a fair imitation of 
any given wood can be obtained with but little labor. 
But the polisher who wishes to hold his own against 
all comers, must be able to do more than merely to 
stain and polish a plain piece of new wood. 

When dealing with old work that requires repolish- 
ing, all dirt, grease, and furniture paste must be 
removed by careful washing with soda and warm 
water and powdered pumice-stone or bath-brick. It 
can then be French polished, or a fresher and more 
satisfactory appearance may be given by applying 
one or two coats of brown hard spirit varnish — such 
as can be bought at an oil and color merchant's — care- 
fully with a camel-hair brush. 

When varnished work has to be dealt with, first clean 
off all the varnish and then repolish in the way 
described in previous chapters, except that filling will 
probably be dispensed with. The varnish can 
generally be more easily removed by scraping than by 
papering. With care the varnish can be washed off 
with soda or potash and water, but on account of the 
liability to injure the wood it is scarcely advisable to 
adopt this method. 

For removing polish from flat surfaces, the steel 
scrapers as used by cabinetmakers are the best tools 
to use. In turned and other work which has an uneven 
surface the old coating can nearly all be got off by 
application of strong hot soda water, to which may be 
added some oxalic acid in difificult cases. When a 
large quantity of work has to be treated, use the follow- 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 105 

ing mixture: >^ lb. potash, ^ lb. soft soap, >^ lb. rock 
ammonia, i lb. washing soda, 3 ounces of nitric acid, I 
gallon of water. Apply with a fiber or scrubbing 
brush, taking care of the hands. Swill off with plenty 
of clean water. When the work is dry, oil and fill in; 
then repolish. 

Spirit varnish can be removed by washing with 
methylated spirit, which redissolves the lac. This is 
both a tedious and somewhat expensive method, which 
need be resorted to only for delicate mouldings and 
other work which cannot well be cleaned by scraping 
or by scouring with some liquid which, though it would 
remove the varnish, might stain and so spoil the wood. 
Alcohol, being neutral, may be used on any wood, as it 
will not affect the color. 

When dealing with cabinets or other built-up work, 
the process of repolishing will be simplified somewhat 
by taking apart as much as convenient. It is a good 
plan to unhinge all doors, to remove all carvings that 
may be screwed on from the back, and to remove all 
knobs, brass fittings, etc. — not forgetting to put some 
tallying mark on each piece which might be liable to 
misplacement. Thus the doors can be better handled 
on the bench, the corners of panels can be worked up 
better, and the carvings can be varnished better. 
When the carvings are planted on, as is often done, a 
much cleaner job is made if these are first removed; 
for it is a difficult task to polish the open carvings 
equal to the flat surface. 

Sometimes polished work is disfigured by fine little 
lines which are caused by cracks, resulting from sweat- 
ing. These lines become visible through the dust 
settling on the exuding oil. This disfigurement can be 
averted almost entirely by occasionally carefully wiping 



io6 THE UP-TO-DATE 

with a soft, damp cloth. Sweating is not entirely pre- 
ventible, but when the oil has ceased to exude, which 
may not be for some months, the work may be 
lepolished with advantage. 

The perfectly level, brilliant polish found on new 
German pianos fills many an American French-polisher 
with envy. Unfortunately, this brilliant polish does 
not last long, and the majority of the pianos soon have 
a greasy, cracked appearance. Indeed, there are but 
few of these pianos with a polish gained by the legiti- 
mate process of French polishing. This brilliant, 
level polish is gained by a very liberal use of gum 
Bandarac, and when the polishing is completed the 
pianos are set aside in a clean, hot room, which has 
the effect of causing the polish or gums to flow to one 
dead level. Some makers use varnish very freely, 
and, before passing to the hot room, level this by 
means of pumice powder, tripoli, putty powder, and 
sometimes flour. 

When the requisite number of coats of varnish have 
been laid, the surface is leveled with fine glass-paper 
and linseed oil, or by the slower process of felt rubber 
and pumice powder. After being wiped perfectly 
clean, a rubber made of soft flannel, or, better still, of 
old silk, is used to rub carefully and lightly in a 
circular direction with tripoli powder and oil, till the 
surface is perfectly level and inclined to be bright; it 
is then rubbed with dry putty powder and silk, and 
finally brightened with flour. 

The surface should be left perfectly free from any 
trace of the polishing powders; neglect of this 
accounts for the white patches sometimes seen on the 
German pianos. These patches are not so deep as 
they appear at first sight, and may often be removed 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 107 

with flour emery and linseed oil or turps without 
disturbing the polish. 

To renovate the polish on these pianos is difficult, 
but when it is not very bad, a reviver made of equal 
parts of linseed oil, lime water, and turps is generally 
effective. The lime water and oil are first thoroughly 
mixed; then the turps is added, and the mixture is 
applied by means of wadding. The surface is wiped 
off with a rag, and finished with a clean, soft rag swab, 
made fairly moist with methylated spirit. Should any 
trace of grease still remain, change to a clean place of 
the already moist rag, and sprinkle a few spots of 
glaze on its face, or, better still, wipe the face of the 
glaze rubber over the face of the clean swab. 

Should this method prove ineffective it will be 
necessary to repolish, first removing the sweat or 
roughness by fine sandpaper and oil, or by washing 
with weak soda water and pumice powder. The polish 
used should be made with spirit instead of naphtha, 
and, to ensure its lasting qualities, it should be bodied 
up one day and finished the next. 

To darken the birch frame of a chair, wipe it over 
with asphaltum dissolved in turpentine (one cent's 
worth in half a pint of turps). This stains without 
giving a painted appearance; should there be any 
difficulty in obtaining asphaltum, Vandyke brown may 
be used, mixed to a thin paste with liquid ammonia — 
or with a strong solution of common washing soda. 
This is thinned with water, till of the required tone, 
which will readily be found by trying its effect on any 
odd piece of wood. If French polish cannot be applied, 
the most suitable thing to use is brown hard spirit 
varnish. 

For restoring polish that has faded from damp or 



io8 THE UP-TO-DATE 

exposure to the sun, those stains which are used to 
stain the common woods will not be suitable. It may- 
be conv^enient to remove only the upper surface of the 
polish, to color the faded portion so as to match its 
surroundings, and to repolish the whole. When the 
polish is not very bad, it is generally sufificient to 
smooth it well with a piece of worn glass-paper. 
When it is much scratched or faded, methylated spirit 
should be sprinkled upon it, and the surface well 
rubbed with No. i sandpaper, applied with a circular 
motion; it will then be found that only the upper 
surface of the polish will be removed. Before 
repolishing, it is advisable first to wash the article with 
water to which a little common washing soda has been 
added. This will remove any dirt, furniture paste, etc. ; 
a little pumice powder or powdered bath-brick may 
be used to assist. 

After the necessary cleaning off of dirt, etc., has 
been accomplished, any bruises must be removed, 
either by scraping out or by bringing up level, by 
means of a hot iron and moisture, or by filling up with 
hard stopping, or by the still better method previously 
given. When this has been done, and all defective 
parts made good, the surface must be wiped over with 
an oily rag; it assists the new polish to take kindly to 
the old. In scraping out the bruises, in cleaning off 
level any new piece, and in cleaning off the polish, it 
is probable that light patches may be made. More 
especially will these be made apparent if the damaged 
portion has been previously colored up by stains, dry 
colors, or dyed polish. 

For coloring up or matching, it is generally suffi- 
cient, if the wood in hand is mahogany, to wipe over 
the damaged portion with red oil, which consists of }{ 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 109 

lb. of alkanet root steeped in i pint of linseed oil, 
working up with red polish. Should the wood be 
walnut, many a little blemish and scratch in soft 
resinous varnish may be matched by wiping over with 
a solution of one cent's worth of asphaltum dissolved 
in y^ pint turps. Should the defect be a piece of sap 
or other light portion, go over the light portion several 
times with the polish rubber to prevent the grain from 
rising, and then saturate a small tuft of wadding with 3 
parts of methylated spirits to I part of polish; on this 
wadding place a small quantity of Vandyke brown or 
brown umber, mix well, and carefully wipe over the 
light portions, thinning out with spirits if too dark, 
picking up a little more color if not dark enough, 
adding a little black if required. 

Matching stains are used in French polishing because 
light and dark places often occur in the best selected 
woods, and in stained work, owing to the difference 
in the direction of the grain. To tone or harmonize 
the entire surface to one uniform shade, is technically 
called matching or coloring up, and requires a little 
tact and a good eye for color. On large flat surfaces 
colored polish may be used with advantage, but for 
small work it would be better to take a small tuft of 
wadding and wet it with i part polish to 3 parts spirits. 
With this take up a little yellow ocher and just a trace 
of umber or Vandyke brown. Press the wadding well 
on the back of a piece of worn-out glass-paper to 
equalize, and mix well. Try the effect on an odd 
corner of the work; if too dark, thin out with spirits; 
if not dark enough, pick up more color, or wipe over 
twice. Having gained the right shade, apply lightly 
with a straight or wavy motion as required. This 
would enable one to match the oak, but any wood can 



no THE UP-TO-DATE 

be matched by using suitable pigments, a red tinge 
being usually given by the addition of a few drops of 
Bismarck brown stain. Though it is possible to pro- 
ceed to polish direct, yet it would be safer to set the 
stain by giving a coat of thin spirit varnish, and allow 
this to get quite dry before polishing. In matching 
up satin walnut, the polisher must use judgment, for 
the work can hardly be regarded as mechanical. The 
stain must depend on the color or tint of the lighter 
parts, and of the darker parts to which they are to be 
matched. Generally a little weak brown stain will do 
what is required. When necessary, it can be altered 
slightly in color by the addition of other pigments, 
according to the tints desired. 

In matching, the wavy appearance of some woods 
may be given by a tremulous movement of the hand, 
and the mottled appearance of others by dabbing with 
a badger softener or clean, soft dusting brush while 
the color is still wet. Veins either black or red may 
be given by picking up a little dry black or red stain 
on the corner of the tuft of wadding and applying it 
carefully, taking some adjacent portion as a guide for 
pattern. For rosewood, red stain and dry black may 
be used in combination; for birch or oak, use yellow 
ocher. When the work in hand is large, and requires 
staining all over, and it is not possible to gain the 
desired result by means of dyed polish applied with 
the rubber, the colors should be mixed in a pot with 
3 parts of spirit to I of polish, and applied with a 
camel-hair brush. The work is not so liable to get 
patchy with two or more coats of weak stain as with 
one strong one. 

After laying on the stain, allow a few minutes to 
els^pse for it to set, then smooth down with a piece of 



HARDWOOD FINISHER in 

worn, fine glass-paper, and give a coat of thin brush 
polish or spirit varnish. This will set the colors pre- 
vious to polishing, which can be proceeded with in 
about ten minutes. Mahogany, rosewood, and walnut, 
if not inlaid, are generally improved by the use of a 
polish tinged by the addition of a little red stain. 
Other colors may also be mixed with polish to be 
applied with the rubber. When using these dyed 
polishes, cease when just the right tinge is attained; 
another rubber may be used to finish off with clear 
polish. 

In repolishing work, the foundation having been 
already laid, the polish is not required quite so thick 
as in polishing the bare wood. In the final stage, 
when finishing off, any trace of greasiness may be 
effectually removed by well rubbing with a swab of 
the clean, soft rag, fairly damp (not wet) with spirits, on 
face of which has been sprinkled a few drops of glaze. 

Colors in a dry state known as pigments, such as 
Venetian red, yellow ocher, vegetable black or lamp- 
black, umbers, Vandyke brown, chromes, orange and 
lemon, greens, blues, flake white, etc., are useful. By 
the aid of these, the polisher is enabled to match 
woods and restore faded polish, far more expeditiously 
than can be done by staining or using dyed polish or 
varnish. Work that might puzzle the inexperienced 
for hours can be done in a few minutes by a knowledge 
of the use of dry colors. They are used in some stains 
by mixing with ammonia, glue size, pearlash, soda, 
and they are used to color the "filling-in" of whiting 
and turps to make it match the various woods. 
Venetian red is used for mahogany, umber for walnut, 
black for ebony, and sometimes to give an appearance 
of age to oak by making the grain appear dirty. 



112 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Sometimes the polisher has a job passed to him that, 
properly speaking, ought to be done by the painter. 
The quick-drying nature of the solutions of shellac, 
with which the polisher is the better acquainted, obtains 
for him the preference. For example, shields, etc., 
for the decorative purposes that may require five 
different colors and a coat of varnish, can be colored 
ready for fixing within twenty-four hours. To do this, 
lime blue, chrome yellow, vegetable black, flake white, 
and vermilionette or any other colors should be mixed 
with ordinary French polish to the consistency of 
thin paint, thinning out when necessary with alcohol 
spirits. Three coats of color can be laid on, stencil 
patterns cut and painted, borders and edges lined, and 
the whole finished with a coat of white hard varnish 
within twelve hours. To prevent the white getting a 
yellowish tinge, it is well to mix it with transparent 
polish made from white shellac. 

To make imitation marble which wears well, give 
several coats of flake white mixed in polish; then put 
in the veins of blue or black with feathers, afterwards 
giving a coat of white thinned out with spirits. This 
has the effect of making the veining appear beneath 
the surface. When dry it is finished by giving a coat 
of good quality copal varnish. 

THE FINISHING OF VARIOUS WOODS 

It will be in order now to describe how to finis'i 
some of the more popular woods, in detail, though 
enough has been said in a general way to enable any 
workman to finish work in any wood made use of for 
building or decorative purposes, but a few lines 
devoted to some of our special woods may perhaps be 
of timely service to some owner of this volume. Oak, 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 113 

being the most popular and at the same time the most 
durable and the most used of our woods, is deserving 
of the first place. 

Finishing Oak 

We have in this country over forty kinds of oak 
nearly every one of which may be used for some 
special purpose; those most used for building finish 
and for furniture, however, are only few, among which 
are the white oak (Quercus rtdia), rock oak {Quercus 
primas 7nurticola) and black oak {Quercus tindoris). All 
of the above-named oaks are capable of being hand- 
somely finished, the white and black oaks being the 
best and the red being next. 

What is known as quarter oak is made by first saw- 
ing the log from end to end through the middle. 
Then each half is sawed from end to end through the 
middle, thus leaving four quarters. Each quarter has 
only three sides, one side the bulge part of the log, 
and the other two sides flat and coming to an edge. 
The boards are sawed off the sharp edge, and each 
sawing, therefore, throws off a board wider than the 
one before it. Sawing the quarters of the log in this 
manner, lumber possesses that beautiful cross-grained 
figure so much in fashion now that it has become 
somewhat of a craze. This cross-grained material finds 
favor in the finest furniture and interior work. The 
wood is susceptible of the very finest polish, and the 
cross-grain produces an effect made by both nature 
and the saw, that is quite superior to the art of the 
most skillful grainer. To effect a good imitation of 
antique oak, lampblack or Vandyke brown in oil is 
applied to 'the surface of the wood, darkening its 
natural hue; but this is not by any means best or the 



114 THE UP-TO-DATE 

only way, but answers very well where other processes 
or methods are not available. With regard to giving 
oak an antique appearance, many opinions exist. 
Formerly — and probably the first — imitations of antique 
oak were produced by exposing the bare dressed surface 
to the steam of boiling ammonia. This process, how- 
ever, it was impossible to apply to casings of house 
interiors, thus leading to the application of the aqua 
ammonia with a brush, but it is by repeated application 
that the desired results are produced. It stains the 
wood gray. There are finishers who claim this to be 
the only process by which to imitate Nature, but 
another, much faster and one which gives the same 
results, is to use strong vinegar with iron filings or 
shavings added; by a little experimenting this can be 
made to suffice with one coat, depending upon the 
amount of iron added. 

A very clever imitation of the general antique can 
be obtained by staining the filler with Vandyke brown 
and charcoal, equal parts, using about I part of the 
colored to 4 parts of the light. Then there is another 
antique which imitates certain oak from the sixteenth 
century; the peculiarity of it consists in dark cloud 
streaks permeating the wood in every direction, some 
of them crossing the panels in a V-shape, others 
straight near top and bottom. To give them an odd 
appearance, a pair of panels can be clouded by 
streaking one three or four times and the other once or 
twice. These stripes vary in width from three to five 
inches. The wider streaks look well across the top of 
a table three or four times, or even partly across, while 
the narrow ones would do well around the legs and 
across the styles and rails of paneled work. In 
putting these on, they should be dark in the center and 



HARDWOOD FINISHER ii^ 

blend out at the edges. This is done with an automatic 
paint burner, allowing the flames to scorch the wood 
nearly black; but care must be taken not to char it. 
After the work is all streaked, the wood is filled with 
filler stained with burnt umber mixed as for black 
walnut 

Care must be taken to have the filler stained to the 
proper tint, and in applying correctly. By following 
the rules given under the head "Filling" the operator 
should have no trouble in making good work, and we 
here repeat the instruction. 

After enough surface has been covered with the 
filler, so that what has been first applied begins to 
flatten, the process of wiping should immediately 
begin, using for that purpose either a rag or a handful 
of waste or excelsior. If the' oak is very open-grained, 
waste is preferable. With a piece of this that has 
previously been used and is pretty well supplied with 
filler, rub crosswise of the grain, rather rubbing it into 
the grain than wiping it off. After the whole surface 
has been gone over in this way, take a clean piece of 
waste or rag (never use excelsior for wiping clean) and 
wipe the surface perfectly clean and free from filler, 
using a wooden pick, the point of which has been 
covered with a rag or waste, to clean out the corners, 
beads, etc. It is well to give these picks some atten- 
tion, as a person once accustomed to certain tools can 
accomplish more and better work than with tools that 
feel strange in his hands; therefore, each finisher 
should furnish his own pick. As to their construction, 
those are best made from second-growth hickory, 
which can be procured from any carriage repair shop, 
such as old spokes, broken felloes, etc. They are 
made eight inches in length, half inch oval at one end 



ii6 THE UP-TO-DATE 

and tapering down to the point at the other. Sharpen 
the oval end like a coal chisel, then smooth with 
sandpaper, which should also be used to sharpen the 
tool when the same becomes worn dull. 

This picking out of the filler from beads, etc., can 
be accelerated by the use of a picking brush manu- 
factured especially for that purpose, but it is not 
advisable to use this on very coarse-grained oak, as it 
scrubs the filler out of the pores. 

Oak may be fumigated by liquid ammonia, strength 
880°, which may be bought at any wholesale chemist's 
at $1.50 a gallon. The wood should be placed in 3. dark 
and airtight room (in a big packing case, if you like!), 
and half a pint or so of ammonia poured into a soup 
plate, and placed upon the grotind \n the center of the 
compartment. This done, shut the entrance, and 
secure any cracks, if any, by pasted slips of paper. 
Remember that the ammonia does not touch the oak, 
but the gas that comes from it acts in a wondrous 
manner upon the tannic acid in that wood, and browns 
it so deeply that a shaving or two may actually be 
taken off without removing the color. The depth of 
shade will entirely depend upon the quantity of 
ammonia used and the time the wood is exposed. Try 
an odd bit first experimentally, and then use your own 
judgment. 

Short pieces of stuff may be so treated by using an 
airtight box. The box ready, a flat dish or plate of 
strong ammonia should be placed in the bottom, so 
that the fumes will rise and surround the object. All 
that is now necessary is to place the article in the 
box, nailing up as close as possible, and await results 
Ten hours'exposure, using strong ammonia, should give 
a good color; if not dark enough let it remain longer, 



HARDWOOD FINISHER ii; 

bearing in mind, however, that the wood will present 
no noticeable change until oiled or brought in contact 
with a wet substance such as shellac. It is well, there- 
fore, to note the progress by touching the wood with 
the wet finger, when it will show at once the stage it 
has reached. 

There could be no better method devised to stain 
oak than this, when practicable, and in adopting it we 
simply anticipate nature, which, in time, through the 
action of the ammonia of the atmosphere, would 
present the same result. Mahogany may also be 
treated similarly with success. 

Here is another method of making antique oak, and 
it might be added that white, and black ash, and 
chestnut, similarly treated, will give a fair imitation of 
antique oak. The job should be made of hardwood, 
with as full an open grain as possible to secure a fine 
effect. Sandpaper this and clean off. Then prepare a 
priming made of i part japan, I part raw linseed oil 
and I part rubbing varnish. Drop into y^ gal. of the 
liquid I lb. of commercial corn §tarch, such as is used 
for culinary purposes. Next take some good, dry, 
burnt Turkish umber, and add about ^ lb, of this to 
the starch. Apply to the job a good flowing coat of 
this priming. Let stand until it is set and has soaked 
well into the grain, and then take a broad putty knife 
.and stick it into the grain, working the knife cross- 
wise of the grain. Again let stand a little while, and 
then wnpe with rags; especially clean out all the 
corners, and get the job into as good condition as 
possible as regards having the grain well filled. 

Upon the completion of the operation above 
described it will be found that the open grain has 
absorbed the starch and umber, and that these 



n8 THE UP-TO-DATE 

portions now show the dark shade suggestive of age, 
while all tne rest of the surface is also slightly 
darkened. 

When again perfectly dry, give one coat of rubbing 
varnish, prepared by adding to it y^ lb. of starch to 
each gallon of varnish. This coat should be flowed on 
freely as a medium coat of rubbing varnish, but be 
careful not to have runs of sags. This ought to com- 
pletely fill the wood, after which proceed to varnish, 
rub and finish the job in the usual manner. To pro- 
duce a natural oak finish, follow precisely the same 
course as above described, with the single exception 
of omitting the umber. This will leave the wood in its 
natural color. 

Some of the most attractive work in this line, how- 
ever, is effected by simply spreading on the surface of 
the material a concentrated solution of permanganate 
of potash, this being allowed to act until the desired 
shade is obtained. Five minutes suffice ordinarily to 
give a good color, a few trials indicating the proper 
proportions. The substance named is decomposed by 
the vegetable fiber, with the precipitation of brown 
peroxide of manganese, which the influence of the 
potash, at the same time set free, fixes in a durable 
manner on the fibers. When the action is terminated, 
the wood is carefully washed with water, dried, then 
oiled and polished in the usual manner. The effect 
produced by this process in several woods is really 
remarkable. On the cherry especially it develops a 
beautiful red color which well resists the action of air 
and light, and on the other woods it has a very pleasing 
and natural effect. 

Along with the foregoing may be added the follow- 
ing stains for oak: add to a quart of water 2 ounres 



HARDWOOD FINISHER iig 

each of potash and pearlash. This is a very good 
stain, but it should be used carefully, as it blisters the 
hands and softens brushes. The stain may be made 
lighter by adding more water. 

To Darken Oak. — To darken the color of oak, any of 
the following may be used: 

Liquid ammonia laid on evenly with a rag or brush 
will deepen the color immediately, and it will not fade, 
this being an artificial production of result produced 
naturally by age. 

Bichromate of potash, dissolved in cold water, and 
applied with a brush, will produce a similar result. 

A decoction of green walnut-shell will bring new oak 
to any shade or nearly black. 

Another. — Two quarts of boiled oil; yi lb. of ground 
umber, mixed in oil by colorman; i pint of liquid 
driers, stirred in; i pint of turpentine; mix. After 
cleaning and planing your boards, lay this on with the 
grain of the wood. If required lighter, add naphtha 
till the required shade is attained; it darkens with age. 
Give it twelve hours to dry; then varnish with wood 
varnish, or use only beeswax and turpentine. The 
result is good in time, but slower than varnish. 

Oak can be fumigated, by making a tent of some 
cheap oil cloth, which may be rigged up over a rough 
wooden frame. Of course, the tent must be made 
pretty tight. Don't let the frame touch the work, and 
when complete, cut a small piece that you can lift up 
and use as a peep hole. Then get a saucer full of 
liquid ammonia and place inside the tent — anywhere 
on the floor will do. Close the tent and await results. 
The more ammonia used the darker it gets, so you 
must use your peep hole and suit yourself. Lf you 
wish to polish it, give it a coat of beeswax and turpen- 



120 THE UP-TO-DATE 

tine, let dry, and then brush or rub it well. For a dull 
polish, give it a coat of raw linseed oil, dry well, ana 
then brush up. By "fumigation" you always get a 
good even tone; but, failing this, you can stain the 
work, and by simple means. Buy a little per- 
manganate of potash at the chemist's, dissolve in 
water, and put on with a brush; when dry, give another 
coat if not dark enough. Another method is to get Y-z 
lb. of black japan and dissolve in Y^ pmt of turpen- 
tine, and apply as before, or you can buy the stain 
ready-made; and the walnut water stain — not varnish 
stain — is a good one to make a dark brown oak color. 
If you find the stain brings up the grain — i.e., makes 
the wood rough — rub it down with fine sandpaper and 
stain again, but rub off fairly dry. All these are 
simple methods, which you could easily acquire. 

Styles of Oak Finish. — As oak in its many and varied 
finishes is so very fashionable just now, an explanation 
of the effects of the several stains may be of interest, 
as so many of them are so closely allied as to confuse 
the uninitiated. Bog oak is a thin stain of medium 
color, giving quarter-sawed oak a slight tinge of green. 
It is about the same density as weathered oak, but of 
a green tone instead of brown, like weathered oak. 
Weathered oak is of a brown tone in close imitation of 
the rich old hue taken on by oak through time or from 
exposure to the weather. Antwerp oak is also brown, 
but of a deeper shade, producing an attractive antique 
effect. Black Flemish is a much-admired finish, 
especially when it is desired to produce an effect of 
great weight. It gives a piece of furniture a sub- 
stantial appearance. Its black tone combines 
admirably with red wall covering and hangings. 
Brown Flemish is not unlike Antwerp, but of a muck 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 121 

stronger brown tone. This is one of the most popular 
stains of the hour. It is quite permanent and produces 
a very artistic effect. The so-called gun-metal finish 
for oak is not unlike black Flemish, but gives a tinge 
of blue instead of deep black. Malachite, although 
light green, is not too intrusive. This is affected by 
many people of good taste and is quite popular, 
especially for staining ash. Tyrolean oak is as dark as 
black Flemish or bog oak, and is of a green tinge, 
instead of the blue of the gun-metal finish. 

Golden Oak is very fashionable, being a brownish 
color with a sort of golden glow tint; it may be 
obtained as follows: Golden oak finish is not produced 
by the filler alone; in fact, the filler has very little to 
do with the result. The wood must be stained before 
it is filled, and, of course, the filler must be so colored 
or stained as not to mar or dull the effect. A mixture 
of gold size japan and genuine asphaltum varnish in 
about equal parts, thinned with turpentine, makes a 
good stain that will not raise the grain of the wood, 
dries quickly and hard, and, if wiped out properly, 
gives under varnish a rich effect, termed "golden,'' for 
want of another appropriate name. 

To make a filler, mix one-third each of raw linseed 
oil, japan gold size and turpentine, and put into this 
mixture enough finely powdered silica or silex to make 
a stiff paste, and color this with burnt umber in oil, 
Vandyke brown in oil and a trifle of drop black to suit, 
being mindful that in golden oak only the high lights 
are yellowish brown, while the filled grain is decidedly 
dark. The mixture should be run through a handmill. 
The best plan for you is to buy your golden oak paste 
filler, or at least buy the light paste filler and color it 
to suit your taste; for you cannot buy the raw material 



122 THE UP-TO-DATE 

as cheap as the manufacturer, and making it in a small 
way will cost you more in the long run. 

Another method, if the work is new, is as follows: 
Fuming is only possible when the articles are new and 
free from varnish, polish, glue, or marks of handling. 
The process consists of enclosing the articles — from 
which the glass and all brass fittings are removed — in 
an airtight room or box, on the floor or bottom of 
which are placed a number of shallow dishes contain- 
ing strong liquid ammonia. The depth of color 
depends on the length of exposure, which may vary 
from twelve to thirty-six hours. Where this process 
is not practicable, the next best method is staining. 
The stain must be weak, the exact color required being 
afterwards obtained by the use of a polish made from 
orange shellac and a trace of color in the varnish. A 
suitable stain may be made by dissolving ^ oz. of 
bichromate of potash in i^ pt. of water. To prevent 
the work coming up rough on the application of the 
water stain, the work should be first wiped over with 
raw linseed oil. The stain must be liberally applied, 
and rubbed well in with a rag, finishing off always in the 
direction of the grain. Before starting on the work, 
experiment on odd pieces of similar wood. 

Flemish Oak. — To make a stain for Flemish oak, 
Yz lb. of bichromate of potash, dissolved in i gal. of 
water. Coat woodwork. When dry, sandpaper down 
smooth; then coat with best drop black, ground in 
japan, thinned with turpentine. Let stand five minutes 
and wipe off clean, then coat with pure grain shellac 
and sandpaper with No. o sandpaper; then coat with 
beeswax, i lb. to a gallon of turpentine, % lb. of drop 
black mixed in the wax, then wipe off clean with 
cheese cloth. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 123 

Weathered Oak. — Give woodwork one coat of strong 
ammonia. When dry, sandpaper down smooth and 
stain it from the following colors: lampblack, ochei 
and 2 lbs. of silica to a gallon of stain. Wipe off 
with cheese cloth, then give one coat of pure grain 
shellac, then sandpaper and give one coat of wax and 
wipe off clean. If you should desire a brownish shade, 
put I oz. of bichromate of potash and ammonia, or if a 
greenish shade, put some green and stain. 

Verde, or Green Finish. — One ounce of nigrocenc: 
dissolved in ^ gal. of water. Give woodwork one 
coat; when dry, sandpaper, care to be taken not to rub 
off edges; then fill with a bright green filler, with some 
white lead in the filler. When thoroughly dry, give 
one coat of pure grain shellac and then wax, or it could 
be finished with three coats of varnish and rubbed. 
This finish leaves the pores of bright green color, 
while the rest of the wood is almost black. 

Black Oak. — One ounce of nigrocene to >^ gal. of 
water. Give woodwork one coat, then fill with a black 
filler, then one coat of shellac and three coats of 
varnish rubbed with pumice-stone and water, then oil 
and wipe off clean. 

Austrian Oak. — Fill with a light antique filler, 
colored with raw umber. Give two very thin coats of 
shellac, colored with nigrocene and yellow to the 
desired shade, then sandpaper down and wax and wipe 
off clean. 

Red Oak is a difficult wood to stain or fumigate, but 
it may be done as follows: Make a stain by mixing 
ground dry Dutch pink (this color is yellow) and a 
little dry drop black, with beer, and apply with a hog's 
hair brush. Try the stain on a piece of red oak, and 
get the exact shade if possible, taking care that you 



124 THE UP-TO-DATE 

do not stain quite as dark as the fumigated parts. 
When dry, oil with linseed oil, and make a weak 
■stain, using the same colors, mixed with alcohol, with 
enough button polish to bind the color. Lay on 
carefully with a camel-hair brush. It is better to give 
two coats of weak stain, as the result will be a more 
even color. When dry, wax polished this will make a 
good job. 

Oak Staining Generally. — There is no wood which 
may be treated in so many different ways as oak. It 
may be left in its natural state, or it may be oiled, or 
wax polished, or French polished in its natural color. 
It can be stained and waxed, stained and French 
polished in a variety of colors or tints, with the grain 
opened or filled, and it can also be fumigated. For bed- 
room furniture, if the wood is carefully selected, a 
very pleasing effect is obtained by waxing or French 
polishing it in its natural color, or slightly stained and 
polished with the gcain open or filled, according to 
taste. Dining-room or library finish is generally 
stained a medium color or fumigated. All furniture 
is frequently stained very dark, and polished with the 
grain open. 

If it is desired that the work should be finished in its 
natural color, fill in with Russian tallow and plaster of 
Paris, and polish with white polish. If it is required 
to be slightly tinted, stain the filler with yellow ocher 
and polish with button polish. For staining, the best 
stains to use are the powdered water stains, and some 
very effective tints may be obtained by carefully 
mixing green and brown stains together; apply the 
stain with a hog's hair brush, and if the grain should 
rise quickly, rub down with 1% glass-paper before 
laying off the stain. When the stain is dry, oil with 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 125 

Unseed oil, then give a coat of polish to fix the stain. 
It may then be polished with the grain open, and 
finished with a wet rubber, using no spirits. If a level 
surface is required, it must be carefully filled in, and 
not unduly hurried in the polishing. The latter 
applies to oak generally, as the wood is coarse, and 
consequently'sinks a great deal. 

A good dark oak stain may be made as follows: 
Dissolve I oz. of bichromate of potash in ^ pint of 
water, and i oz. of potash in y^, pint of water. When 
each are separately dissolved, mix together, and add 
dry powdered Vandyke brown. If a very dark color is 
required, add also a little powdered drop black; apply 
with a hog's hair brush, and polish as before stated. 
As sometimes the American potash varies in strength, 
the hair of the brush will curl up if it is too strong. If 
this occurs, add a little more water. Oak carvings 
give a much nicer appearance always if the grain is 
left open, even when the other parts are filled up. If 
they are stained, oil and afterwards give a coat of 
polish to fix the stain. When this is dry, brush well 
with a stiff-haired brush and rub with a dry cloth. It 
is sometimes advisable to oil oak before it is stained, 
as it often prevents the grain rising. The only dis- 
advantage is that a little extra labor is required to 
make the stain bite. 

Fumigated Oak. — The best kinds of oak for fumigating 
are the English wainscot, or Baltic. The red Ameri- 
can oak does not fumigate well. The advantages of 
fumigating are that a more natural color is obtained 
than by staining. The wood is not made rough by 
the operation, and there is also a great saving in 
labor. The best method of fumigating is to construct 
an airtight chamber, lined with wood, and the joints 



126 THE UP-TO-DATE 

of the wood made airtight by pasting paper over them. 
If the chamber is of the following dimensions it will 
be found large enough for most purposes: length, 9 ft.; 
width, 4 ft.; height, 6 ft. Portable inner frames may 
be made with shutters, so that the size of the chamber 
may be made smaller if necessary. The door should 
have glass panels; this will permit of the work being 
watched, and when the wood has become dark enough, 
the door should be opened. Articles to be fumigated 
should have all brass work removed; then place in the 
chamber in such a position as to allow a free passage 
for the fumes to get at all parts of the wood. Then 
place half a dozen saucers (flower-pot saucers will 
answer for this purpose) on the floor at equal distances, 
and pour into each saucer ^ lb. of spirits of ammonia, 
strength of the ammonia to be 880°, then paper over 
the joints round the door. The wood will darken 
much quicker in hot weather. If a very dark color is 
required, it may be necessary to recharge the chamber 
after twenty-four hours, but a good color is generally 
obtained in about five hours. It should be noted that 
the work always becomes lighter after it is taken out 
of the fumigating chamber. Consequently, the work 
must be proceeded with directly it is taken out. If 
any parts are too dark, do not oil them; all other 
parts should be at once oiled, and given a coat of 
polish. When dry, paper well with No. I glass-paper, 
and wax polish or French polish with the grain open, 
as in the case of stained dark oak. Small articles 
may be fumigated by making a box airtight, and 
placing a piece of felt upon a level floor; stand the 
articles to be fumigated on the felt, and fill one 
saucer with % lb. spirits of ammonia. Then cover 
the whole with the box, and place a weight on the top 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 127 

of the box; this will prevent the fumes from escaping. 
It may be raised occasionally to see how the work is 
proceeding. This plan will answer better than if there 
is a lid to the box, as the fumes will not escape so 
much in this way. 

Great care must be taken when using the ammonia, 
and the operator must particularly avoid inhaling the 
fumes. A good rule when charging a large chamber 
for fumigating is to have some one at hand in case of 
any accident, such as the breakage of the vessel con- 
taining the ammonia. Before the work is taken out of 
the chamber the fumes must be allowed to pass off by 
opening the door for a few minutes before entering. 
If this rule is carried out, no possible harm can 
happen. 

Pollard oak is best treated by first oiling it, and then 
applying a coat of button polish. When the polish is 
dry, it ^ust be rubbed down with No. i glass-paper 
and waxed or French polished. As sometimes pollard 
oak has very large cracks on the surface, these must 
be well stopped with wax stopping, which must be 
stained to match the wood. Before proceeding to wax 
or French polish, if the joints do not match in color, a 
little polish stain may be applied with a camel-hair 
pencil before it is polished. 

For Removing Polish and Restaining Oak. — Saturate 
table with alcohol, keep it wet with it, and whilst wet 
scrape off polish which will have become softened. If 
legs are turned, or on shaped edges, etc., where 
scraper cannot be used, coarse sandpaper (Middle 2) 
will remove polish. Use plenty of spirit and sand- 
paper all over, and take care all polish is removed. It 
can be done in same way with potash — a slower proc- 
ess, and the potash will also burn anything it touches. 



128 THE UP-TO-DATE 

but will stain the wood at the same time. When all 
polish is removed, the table can be stained dark with 
walnut water stain. When wood is well stained in 
pores, wipe off with cloth and let dry; if not dark 
enough, give another coat. Another stain is made 
with turps and black japan, well mixed. A little 
Prussian blue powder will make either stain a greeny 
brown. For polishing, rub in raw linseed oil; let dry, 
and rub again; or for wax polish, melt beeswax on slow 
heat in a galley pot; add turpentine, about a third 
part; let cool. Wax should be soft as paste; if sticky, 
add turps; rub well into wood. Let dry and rub again 
for polish. Stain must be quite dry before oil or wax 
is put on. 

To Finish Cherry 

Cherry {Prunus cerasiis). — This is a fine-grained 
wood, tough and light; is capable of taking the very 
finest finish. Is harder than baywood, and is a nearer 
approach in color, grain and texture, to mahogany 
than any other native wood. 

One of the best methods for making cherry look like 
mahogany is to have the wood rubbed with diluted 
nitric acid, which prepares it for the materials sub- 
sequently applied. Afterwards to a filtered mixture 
of xYt, oz. of dragons' blood dissolved in a pint of 
spirits of wine is aded one-third that quantity of 
carbonate of soda. The whole, constituting a very thin 
liquid, is brushed with a soft brush over the wood. 
This process is repeated with very little alteration, 
and in a short interval of time the wood assumes the 
external appearance of mahogany. If the composition 
has been properly made the surface will resemble an 
artificial mirror, and should this brilliancy ever decline 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 129 

it may be restored by rubbing the surface with a little 
cold drawn linseed oil. 

When cherry is nicely filled and rubbed well down 
and not varnished, it has a soft glow not possessed by 
any other, and has none of those distortions of graife 
that are so unpleasant in mahogany. The timber is 
chosen from the wild cherry, which in New England 
and the North generally does not usually grow to a 
girth of more than 20 inches, but in some of tha 
Western States and in the South frequently attains a 
diameter of 24 inches. The domestic fruit cherry 
gives some good specimens of small timber, but as the 
tree is rarely sacrificed until it is past bearing and is 
decayed, this source of supply is precarious. The 
facility with which cherry can be worked makes it a 
favorite with the cabinetmaker and the house-joiner; 
and it also possesses the quality of "staying where it 
is put," and that is more than can be said of many of 
the hardwoods. 

I give below several stains for making pine and 
other suitable woods to have an appearance of 
cherry. 

1. To prepare this color in water stain, boil in a 
gallon of water i lb. of Spanish annotto and i oz. of 
concentrated lye (potash). Should this not be deep 
enough, allow the water to evaporate by a gentle heat. 
The stain can also be darkened by adding gamboge 
previously dissolved in a weak potash solution. 

2. Gamboge in oil, diluted with turpentine, and a 
little japan added as a siccative. This produces the 
same color in oil as the former in water stain, and can 
be deepened with dragons' blood in oil or finely 
ground burnt sienna in oil. 

3. Mix together, by stirring, I qt. of spirits of 



130 THE UP-TO-DATE 

turpentine, i pt. of varnish, and I lb. of dry burnt 
sienna; apply with a brush and after it has been on 
about five minutes wipe it off with rags. This stain 
takes about twelve hours to dry. 

4. Take i qt. alcohol, 2 oz. of dragons' blood; 
pulverize the latter along with % oz. of alkanet root; 
mix and let stand in a warm place a couple of days. 
Shake frequently in the meantime. Apply with a 
sponge or brush. Two or three coats may be required. 
This makes a fine stain. 

To finish cherry, the first and a very important 
thing to do is to give the wood a thorough sandpaper- 
ing, to remove finger and other marks, and make s 
perfect surface to receive the stain. Next comes the 
dusting off of the work, which also should be carefully 
done, as specks of dust or dirt will cause bad work. 
Stain should be put on with a four-inch oval brush, one 
set with cement. Apply the stain freely, but do not 
work it too much, as this would cause it to froth, 
forming specks. Have the stain in a wooden, earthen 
or enameled vessel, as metal will often alter the color 
of the stain. Avoid laps when staining; do a section 
at a time. But should a lap be unavoidable, then take 
a sponge, wet with clear water, and wet that part of 
the work already done and adjoining that which is to 
be done, and then at once apply the stain. Have a 
bucket of water and a sponge ready at hand. Any 
part of the work taking too dark may be toned down 
by means of the wet or damp sponge, causing it to 
match the other and lighter work. Allow the stain to 
dry thoroughly, after which it is ready for sandpaper- 
ing with 000 paper. Next give a coat of shellac. 
Finish with two coats of varnish, or with three coats 
for extra fine finish. Rub with pumice-stone and 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 131 

water, polish with rotten stone and water, and clean 
up with furniture polish. 

Oil stains were formerly used, but aniline stains give 
much better color effects. Aniline stains may be 
bought ready prepared. 

When sandpapering cherry be sure that you do not 
cut through, as it would show up white. Cutting 
through is liable to occur about mouldings, edges, etc. 
Use old, worn sandpaper there; for the more sunken 
parts redampen and rub the layers of paper from the 
back of old sandpaper, which will make it very pliable 
and soft. 

Finishing Black Birch 

Birch. — Betiila Nigra or Canadian birch is superior to 
all other birches for constructive purposes, and when 
properly finished has a fine, quiet, refined look that 
commends itself to all lovers of domestic woods. 

Black birch is a close-grained, handsome wood, and 
can be easily stained to resemble walnut exactly. It 
is just as easy to work, and is suitable for nearly, if not 
all, the purposes to which walnut is applied. Birch is 
much the same color as cherry, but the latter wood is 
now scarce, and consequently dear. When properly 
stained it is almost impossible to distinguish the 
difference between it and walnut, or cherry, as it is 
susceptible of a beautiful polish, equal to any wood 
now used in the manufacture of furniture and inside 
finishings. 

To finish to represent mahogany, coat with a weak 
solution of bichromate of potash, then stain with rose 
pink, Vandyke brown and burnt sienna; then shellac, 
with a little Bismarck brown dissolved in the shellac 
This makes a better stain and more lasting than a 
water stain 



132 THE UP-TO-DATE 

There is a species of bird's-eye birch, but it is very 
scarce. An evidence of the weight and solidity of the 
wood is the fact that it will sink after being a few 
days on the water. It also possesses the quality of 
durability in a preeminent degree. 

Birch is generally finished the same as cherry, and 
directions given under that head will apply here also. 

Finishing Mahogany 

Mahogany, cherry and black birch require about the 
same treatment, though there are some features in 
mahogany that differ a trifle from the other two woods. 
There is little or no grain markings in cherry or birch, 
while Spanish mahogany may be marked and penciled 
over its whole face; and the texture of the woods is very 
different to the touch. 

Mahogany {Sviete?ied). — The tree has a darkish-brown 
bark and a reddish-brown, coarsely fibered, streaky, 
hard wood. The tree grows to the height of 35 meters, 
and is pretty strong. Among the chief varieties is the 
common mahogany, with a very hard, very durable 
wood, which is never attacked by worms, and is 
excellent for ship-building; but its capability for 
taking a fine polish is its chief recommendation. 
Mahagofii Haiti, Mahagoni Jamaika, Mahagoni Havanna 
are the other chief kinds. 

With perhaps the exception of our oaks, no wood 
possesses like advantages of combined soundness, 
large size, durability, beauty of color and richness of 
figure. So, when compared with other woods, 
mahogany costs no more to work and stands better 
than any other— the only point to weigh against this 
last great feature is the slight difference in the first 
cost of the wood in the rough; but if m?hogany stands 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 133 

better and longer, and needs no attention afterwards, 
surely the sole advantage of less cost at first which any 
other wood may possess is overcome. 

But another merit, equal to any thus far mentioned, 
is the warmth in its color and the glory in the figure of 
this beautiful wood. The air of elegance, artistic 
effect and gentle breeding it imparts to all its sur- 
roundings, its joy and life — all these cannot be 
measured by a few cents a square foot. Its growing 
splendor with age that gives increasing satisfaction 
may safely be contrasted with the tameness of other 
woods, which, though pleasing at first, deteriorate 
rather than improve. 

When the real wood is used, but little more is 
necessary than to fill and varnish or polish, as it can- 
not be much improved upon. Sometimes, however, it 
may be deemed proper to darken it somewhat to take 
away the reddish hue that newly wrought mahogany 
presents, and this can best be don^ by darkening the 
filler, to suit the taste, trying the mixture first on a 
piece of the dressed stuff, until the desired shade is 
obtained. Staining the varnish or polish with dragons' 
blood or other suitable dyes, will also accomplish the 
desired end. 

Staining by the fumes of ammonia will probably 
give the best results, as almost any tinge can be given 
the work, from the newness of youth to the mellow- 
ness of extreme age. This method is considered the 
best for imparting to mahogany the appearance of age, 
and for those wishing to avail themselves of an easy, 
clean and certain means of gaining the result, fumi- 
gating offers no serious obstacle to its accomplishment, 
the articles necessary being easy of acquirement, and 
at small expense. 



£34 THE UP-TO-DATE 

To darken mahogany, wash it with very weak lime 
water, which allow to dry thoroughly. This gives a 
rich red color, more closely matching old mahogany 
than any other stain that can be used. 

Antique mahogany may be obtained as follows: 
Take one-third linseed oil, two-thirds turpentine; coat 
woodwork and wipe off clean. When thoroughly 
dry, coat with bichromate of potash; then fill with a 
dark, rich filler; then shellac and give three coats of 
varnish and rub with pumice-stone and water, then oil 
and wipe off clean. If an extra good job is required, 
give woodwork one heavy coat of polishing varnish 
after being rubbed in water; then rub again in water 
and polish. In finishing mahogany, some put on the 
bichromate of potash without oiling, but they do not 
get as good a color. All mahogany should be oiled 
first, unless you want a very light color; then it should 
have a thin coat of shellac first. 

In repolishing and reviving old work, first clean off 
all dust from the corners and rebates, then wipe all 
the polished portions with warm water and soda, and 
allow them to dry. Mahogany treated with spirit 
varnish is seldom satisfactory, but it is one of the 
best woods known for showing the fine effects of 
French polishing. Couch legs and chair turnings are 
generally bodied up with the brush, and finished with 
the rubber. If the surface is in fair condition after 
washing, no filling will be required; a rubber of good 
French polish worked out dry with spirit, and after- 
wards spirited out, or glazed, will give the desired 
result, if properly done. The polish will require 
staining with a little Bismarck brown or brown 
aniline dye, to brighten up the color. It would be a 
great advantage, and well worth the outlay, to put 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 135 

fresh gimp or leather banding round the borders; but 
this should not be done until the show-wood portions 
are repolished. 

Walnut Finishing 

"Walnut (Juglans Nigra). — As this wood is seldom or 
never stained, it is unnecessary to say more about it 
other than it may be treated like oak, cherry or birch. 
It looks well filled and finished in shellac. Birch 
stained and properly finished looks very much like 
walnut, and with a little care in getting a proper tint in 
the stain, can scarcely be known from the real thing. 
"Filling," in walnut finishing, is one of the most 
important processes; if the richness of the wood is 
desired to be shown, as much depends on the "tint" as 
on the filling material. 

Ordinary whitewood can be given the appearance of 
black walnut by first thoroughly drying tne wood and 
then washing two or three times with a strong aqueous 
solution of extract of walnut peel. When nearly dry, 
the wood thus treated is washed over with a solution 
made of one part (by weight) of bichromate of potash 
in five parts of boiling water. After drying thoroughly, 
rub and polish. 

A number of recipes for making and applying stains 
to imitate walnut are given elsewhere in this volume, 
which see. 

Regarding Cypress 

Cypress {Cupressus sempervierens) . — The light, the 
dark and the bald are good woods and are coming 
more and more into favor every day. 

This wood contains a very small amount of resin, 
and a very high polish can be given it; in fact, because 
of its not being affected by moisture, it is being used 



136 THE UP-TO-DATE 

for cisterns, hogsheads, and sugar, molasses and honey 
barrels. The red cypress is the favorite, and some of 
it is so heavy that it will sink upon being placed in 
water. The white variety is much lighter, and will 
float after being deadened a short while before being 
cut, but it has not the firm grain of the red. The red 
cypress has a straight trunk with a small top, and the 
bark when cut has a reddish tint. These woods may 
be treated like cherry or birch with good results. 
They look well when left their natural color and 
finished "dead finish." 

Concerning the use of cypress for inside finish, it is 
all right if properly dried, prepared and put in place, 
but dry it must be, and there will be no trouble with 
its staying in place or shrinking any more than any 
other kind of wood. It may be remarked, however, 
that cypress is an exceedingly hard wood to thoroughly 
dry, but for a low-cost material there is nothing to 
equal it in appearance. Get good, even-colored 
cypress, finish it well and some people could not tell it 
from red birch. If one cares to have it stained, it takes 
first rate. In finishing up cypress, the painters' work 
is the most difficult, for if the proper materials are not 
put on the grain is very liable to rise, which will 
spoil the good effect and will show even after being 
rubbed down. It is susceptible of a very high polish, 
and when finished in the natural color of the wood is 
very handsome. It is used by architects as a basis for 
the ivory white finish many people fancy, but in any 
event the wood when used for interiors possesses too 
much natural beauty to cover it with paint. 

As cypress costs less than any other suitable wood 
for exterior work, it is not only more durable, but it 
will take paint better than other woods, and the paint 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 137 

will not peel off. We have seen buildings shingled 
with cypress upon both roof and walls upon which no 
stain or paint had been used. In time such buildings 
take on the beautiful gray color which is so greatly 
admired by many people, especially for a country or 
suburban residence. The natural qualities of the wood 
make it possible to use either shingles or clapboards in 
this way without paint, and there is probably no other 
wood upon which vines can be grown with so much 
safety from injurious effects. 

Cypress, viewed from the standpoint of the finisher, 
is no less remarkable than when viewed from almost 
every standpoint. There is no wood which can be 
finished more economically, or which is more sus- 
ceptible to the finer handiwork of the finisher and 
polisher. If the work is properly done, the result will 
be satisfactory in either case. It is true, notwithstand- 
ing, that the fine natural appearance of cypress is often 
greatly marred or even ruined by faulty methods of 
treatment, and for that reason care should be exercised 
in finishing it. The best results are obtained through 
the use of pure grain alcohol white shellac, which 
should be purchased of a thoroughly responsible 
dealer. Better results can be obtained from this quality 
of shellac than from the more expensive "refined 
shellac," so called. 

Cypress requires no filling or sealing, and, if it is 
desired to permanently preserve the natural color of 
the wood, no oil or oily substance should be applied 
until the final rubbing down after the wood is well 
protected with shellac. We recommend three or more 
coats of shellac, as may be desired, each coat to be 
smoothed down with fine sandpaper, while the final 
coat may be rubbed down with pumice-stone and oil 



138 THE UP-TO-DATE 

to produce a dead finish, or what is sometimes termed 
"Ggg shell" finish. The final coat may be left bright, 
if preferred, or after rubbing down to a dead finish it 
may be given a French polish, according to the usual 
methods. 

Cypress will take stains well, but we have never 
favored the staining of the wood or the use of any 
color whatever in the finish of it, for it is far too hand- 
some to disguise in any way. 

Rosewood 

Rosewood {Dalbergia Nigra). — It seldom falls to the 
lot of the ordinary finisher to have to "try his hand" 
on the genuine wood, but sometimes it does happeii and 
it is just as well that he should be armed with the means 
to wrestle with the work if such is ever thrown in his 
way. To finish rosewood requires about the same 
treatment as mahogany, though, as a matter of fact, 
many pieces of rosewood will be found to have a coarser 
grain than mahogany, and will require much care in 
filling. The main thing to be observed is to see that 
the filling is a shade or two darker than the wood to be 
filled, before any varnish is laid on. For imitation of 
rosewood I give below a few recipes: 

Take ^ lb. of logwood, boil it with 3 pints of water 
till it is of a very dark red, to which add about half 
an ounce of salt of tartar. When boiling hot, stain 
your wood with two or three coats, taking care that 
it is nearly dry between each; then, with a stiff, flat 
brush, such as is used for graining, make streaks with 
a very deep black stain, which if carefully executed 
will be very near the appearance of dark rosewood. 
The following is aiiother method: Stain your wood 
all over with a black stain, and when dry, with a brush 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 139 

as above dipped in the bright liquid, form real veins in 
imitation of the grain of rosewood, which will produce, 
when well managed, a beautiful effect. A handy brush 
for the purpose of graining may be made by taking a 
flat brush, such as used for varnishing, and cutting the 
sharp points of the hairs and making the edge irregular; 
by cutting out a few hairs here and there the grain may 
be imitated with great accuracy. 

This is suitable to pine, cedar, cypress, whitewood, 
basswood, while the following should only be used in 
mahogany, cherry, or birch: Spread on the surface of 
the material a concentrated solution of hypermanganate 
of potassa, to act until the desired shade is obtained. 
Five minutes suffice, ordinarily, to give a deep color, 
a few trials indicating the proper proportions. The 
hypermanganate of potassa is decomposed by the 
vegetable fiber, with the precipitation of brown per- 
oxide of manganese, while the influence of the potassa, 
at the same time set free, fixes in a durable manner 
the fibers. When the action is terminated the wood is 
carefully washed with water, dried, and then oiled and 
polished in the usual manner. The effect produced 
by this process in several woods is really remarkable 

It has been a mystery to many people why the dark 
wood so highly prized for furniture is called "rose- 
wood." Its color certainly does not look much like a 
rose, so we must look for some other reason. It is 
claimed by some that when the tree is first cut the 
wood possesses a very strong rose-like fragrance, hence 
the name. This is the most probable reason for its 
name. There are about a half dozen kinds of rose- 
wood trees. The varieties are found in South America, 
and in the' East Indies and neighboring islands. 
Sometimes the trees grow so large that boards or 



140 THE UP-TO-DATE 

planks four feet broad and ten feet in length can be 
cut from them. The broad boards are used for the 
tops of pianofortes. When growing in the forests 
the t'-ee is remarkable for its beauty, but such is its 
value in manufacturing as an ornamental wood, that 
some of the forests where it once grew abundantly 
now have scarcely a single specimen left. 

To repolish old work, such as a rosewood piano or 
similar articles, the following method maybe adopted: 

As a rule, polished rosewood pianos are not easily 
kept in good condition; constant cleaning and an 
occasional polishing are required, especially in the 
case of pianos that are faced with genuine rosewood 
veneer, which has a coarse, open grain, and is of a 
somewhat oily nature. Sometimes the grain-filler 
that is used by the polishers will ooze out and cause 
an uneven surface. Plaster of Paris sometimes forms 
the basis of a filling, and this is apt to work out white, 
and becomes more apparent as the dye that has been 
used to enrich the color of the polish fades away 
through exposure to strong sunlight. It must not be 
forgotten that many so-called rosewood pianos are not 
faced with genuine rosewood veneer; the more correct 
term to apply to such pianos is "rosewood finish.'* 
The method by which this finish is obtained depends 
largely on the value of the instrument. In most cases 
the object of the maker is to impart a uniform color 
(frequently called chippendale) to the wood, and in 
order to obtain this end much coloring matter is 
used; such an excessive use of color has a tendency 
to destroy or imperil the nature of the polish, and 
accounts for much of the dullness, uneven surface, or 
variations of color that are more noticeable on some 
parts of the instrument than on other parts. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 141 

Finishing Redwood 

Redwood, as a wood to hold its place after worked, 
has no equal. The shrinkage between green and 
bone-dry is very little, and after it has been ordinarily 
seasoned the shrinkage is very little. It does not keep 
growing a little narrower every year, as a white pine 
board sometimes does; consequently all tendency to 
warping and twisting is done away with. 

As a finishing wood for interior house finish in the 
natural color it has no superior among the long list of 
American woods. It is, however, quite necessary that 
the work be properly done; the main point to be 
observed in finishing in natural color is to avoid the 
use of linseed oil, as it stains the wood a dingy color. 
The best finishers on this coast invariably use shellac 
for filler, applied rather thin, so that the wood will 
absorb it and thereby make a hard surface, which 
protects the wood from bruising, and for last coat use 
the best grade of shellac or hard oil. 

For an Egg-Shell Gloss. — One coat of orange shellac, 
sandpapered to a smooth surface, followed by two or 
three coats of Berry Brothers' (white or light) hard oil 
finish; rub first coats with hair-cloth or curled hair, 
and the last coat with pulverized pumice-stone and 
raw linseed oil. 

For a Dull Finish. — Specify that the last coat be 
rubbed with pulverized pumice-stone and water, in- 
stead of oil. 

For a Polished Finish. — Specify that the last coat be 
rubbed first with pulverized pumice-stone and water, 
and then with pulverized rotten stone and water, and 
iov di piano fi?iish s^QQiiy di further rubbing with Berry 
Brothers' furniture polish, used with a little pulverized 
rotten stone, applied with a piece of soft felt or flannel. 



142 THE UP-TO-DATE 

If a rubbed finish is not desired, omit the specifica- 
tions for rubbing the last coat. 

White Pine Finishing 

Pine (Pinus Strobus). — If oak is the king of wood-, 
pine is most assuredly "president," for it is at once 
the most useful and the most democratic of woods. It 
is found in the halls of the great and powerful, and in 
the cottage of the most humble among us. It is 
strong and vigorous, plain or ornamental, and is hot 
out of place either in the backwoodsman's cabin or in 
the stately cathedral, and like a true man of the world, 
it adapts itself to every condition that circumstances 
may place it in. 

Pine can be made to look like any known wood, but 
is at its best when left natural and finished in clear 
shellac. There is no wood grows, that will convey so 
cheerful a feeling to the beholder as yellow or white 
pine finished in a natural state. Next to being finished 
in a natural state, is to imitate mahogany or light 
cherry, which coloring it takes readily. 

'Where the pine — of any kind — is to be either stained 
or left natural, it should be "quarter sawed," as it will 
show a finer grain, shrink less, and last longer. The 
softness of its texture and its susceptibility to injury 
may have had some influence in preventing its general 
use for ornamental purposes, but the wood can be 
"filled," so that much of this objection is removed. 

Most of the stains given under previous heads are 
applicable to pine. I add, however, a few more, so 
that the workmen may have a number of recipes to 
draw from. 

For Walnut.— I. Dissolve by boiling i part each of 
Epsom salt and permanganate of potash in abou*- 2.5 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 129 

jng or in japan for the coach painter. Some are very 
transparent, others only semi-transparent and such are 
of value to the grainer or for glazing to the carriage 
painter, artists and decorators. 

b. Umber, raw and burnt, vary very much in their 
composition. The best come from Asia Minor and are 
sold as Turkey umber. The raw is of a greenish brown 
and by burning is changed into a rich clear toned 
brown which in good umbers will be free of redness — 
they are semi-transparent. They are useful in all kinds 
of painting and in all mediums. 

c. Siennas, raw and burnt, like the umber vary 
greatly, so much so as to be hardly recognizable as 
being of the same nature — the poor, showing a muddy 
brownish red tone in the burnt, while the good has a 
rich subdued red which has a clear lakey transparency. 
For this reason the siennas are invaluable to the grainer 
and artists, who could not get along without it. It is 
used in oil, japan and water color painting. 

The raw owes its yellowish brown tone to its ferric 
oxide which is hydrated and which looses by burning, 
becoming red after that. 

d. Vandyke brown is a natural bituminous color 
found chiefly in bogs. It is known as Cassel earth, 
from the town in Germany near which it is produced. 
It is very transparent. It is useful as a glazing color in 
carriage painting and as a graining color to the grainer. 
It is not entirely permanent and for that reason, besides 



130 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

of its being a very poor dryer in linseed oil, it is not 
as extensively used now as it was. 

e, Asphaltum or mineral pitch, when well refined is 
useful as a glaze, it being very transparent. As it is 
liable to crack it is more useful in show card painting 
or for the painting of iron gratings, heat registers and 
such than for anything else. 

/. Metallic broivns. Under that name a number 
of raw and calcined dark iron oxide paints are 
marketed, some becoming quite reddish by calcination, 
some being of that tone naturally. They have an ex- 
cellent body or opacity but that the tone of their 
color is not very attractive nor the tints made from 
them they would be used still more than they are. 
For freight car painting, bridge work, barns and the 
cheap outbuildings, roofs and all kinds of structural 
iron work they are used in immense quantities. 

Under the name ought to be included such old time 
colors as Spanish brown, etc., which designation is still 
used on the eastern seaboard while it has become ob- 
solete in the middle west. 

THE BLACKS. 

84. a. The blacks play an important role in every 
department of painting. It is used largely as a self 
color in the painting of iron work, steam and other 
ships and carriages, coaches, etc. While as a tinting 
color with whites and as an adjunct to other colors to 
darken them they are invaluable as tint producers. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 131 

Most of the blacks are of carbonic composition pro- 
duced in a natural state in black lead; derived from 
fats as in lampblack or from the calcination of the 
bones of animals as ivory black and again the product 
of the calcination of woods as in Brunswick black. 

b. Lampblack is produced by the incomplete com- 
bustion of fatty substances. It is very strong in color- 
ing matter, but only moderately black in tone. It pro- 
duces clean toned grays with whites and is the best 
black to use for the making of tints with any other 
colors. It is used more than any of the other blacks 
by sign and house painters and by the carriage trade 
for priming coats. It has more opacity than any other 
black excepting gas black. 

c. Gas black or carbon black is also a black pro- 
duced by the incomplete combustion of natural gas. 
It is more intensely black than lampblack and used as 
a self color it is a close rival to the bone blacks for 
its jet black tone. As a tint producer it is very poor — 
the tints being rusty with none of the clearness of lamp- 
black. It is used to improve the tone of that pigment 
in sign writer's black and since the grinders have dis- 
covered a way of grinding it so that it will not liver 
with linseed oil, it is highly prized for solid black paint- 
ing of all kinds. It is also substituted for drop black 
in the cheaper colors ground in japan as it will bear 
adulterating lo to i and still be as strong as ivory 
black. 

d. Ivory, drop and coach blocks are all one and 



132 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

the same article under different labels it is true hut — 
the same. They are bone blacks which vary greatly in 
quality according as to the kind of bones, hard or 
soft, used in calcination and also in the carefulness in 
conducting of the process. All are useful in oil, japan or 
water colors. It is used in all kinds of painting, but 
the carriage trade consumes the most of it. 

e, Brunszvick black is the charcoal produced by the 
combustion of twigs of trees and vines of various 
growths. It is very transparent and useful only in 
water colors. 

/. Black lead or plumbago is a natural carbon pro- 
duced by nature and it is mined in many parts of the 
world. As a pigment it is permanent and but for its 
indifferent tone, would be used more extensively than 
it is. It is chiefly used in oil for the painting of roofs, 
iron structures and out door painting. 

This ends the list of useful pigments. 

QUESTIONS ON COLORS. 

6i. What is said regarding colors in general? 
62. In how many main classes can pigments be 
divided? 

63'. How are pigments grouped for convenience? 

How many groups of colors? 

What is said concerning their characters? 

What is said of the whites generally? 

Give their derivation? 

What is said generally of white lead? 



64. 


a. 




b. 


65. 


a. 




b. 


66. 


a. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 133 

b. What are its peculiarities? 

c. What is the ''Dutch process" or corrosion? 

d. What is the ''stack" system of corrosion? 

e. What is the "cyHnder" system of corrosion? 
/. Does one system make a better white lead 

than the other? 

67. What is "sublimed lead" ? 

68. Are any of the other salts of lead that are 
white useful as paints ? 

69. a. What is said of zinc white and its pecu- 

liarities? 
b. How many processes are used for making zinc 
white ? 

c. Describe the French process? 

d. Describe the American process? 

e. Are French zinc whites made in France 

only? 

70. a. How are the earth whites divided ? 

b. What are the pigments with a cretaceous 

base? 

c. What are the pigments with an aluminous 

base? 

d. What are the silicious whites ? 

71. a. What is barytes? 
b. What are its uses? 

y2. What is said of the reds generally? 
73. a. What is said of red oxide of iron? 

b. What is said of Venetian red, Pompeian 
red, Turkish red, etc. ? 



134 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

c. What Is said regarding the Indian reds? 

d. What are Tuscan reds? 

74. What is red lead and what are its uses ? 

75. a. What is orange mineral and what are its 

uses? 

b. What is American vermillion? 
y6. a. What is English or quicksilver vermillion ? 

b. Where is it mostly used? 
yy. a. What are imitation or Vermillion reds ? 

b. What are their uses ? 

78. What are lakes and what are their uses? 

79. a. What is said regarding the ochres ? 

b. What are chrome yellows ? 

c. What are their uses ? 

80. What other yellows are they ? 

81. a. What is said of the blues in general? 

b. What is Prussian blue and what are its 

uses ? 

c. What are ultramarine blues and what are 

their uses? 

d. How is cobalt blue made ? 

e. What is ceruleum and how is it imitated ? 
/. What is said of indigo blue ? 

82. a. What is said of greens in general? 

b. What are chrome greens ? 

c. What about cobalt or zinc greens ? 

d. What is said of viridian? 

e. What of Paris or Emerald green? 

8^. a. What is said generally of the browns? 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 135 

b. What about raw and burnt umbers ? 

c. What about raw and burnt sienna ? 

d. What is Vandyke brown? 

84. a. What is said of the blacks generally ? 

b. What is lampblack and what are its uses? 

c. Where does gas black differ from lamp- 

black? 

d. What is Brunswick black? 

e. What is black lead or plumbago? 

COLOR HARMONY. 

85. Exterior and even more so interior painting no 
matter how well it may have been done nor how well 
planned, the decorations will have that undefinable 
''gingerbread" look to it as the painters would call it, 
if the coloring lacks in harmony, and even if well done 
and harmonious, if the draperies, furniture and car- 
pets are not in harmony with the painting, that will 
suffer in consequence of the latter inharmonious 
neighborhood. 

It is said that poets are born but not made; this to 
a certain extent can be said of a good colorist. It is a 
lamentable fact that 10% of men are at least partially 
color blind and incapable of judging the eft'ects of true 
harmony. Some are totally color blind and can only 
recognize shades of black and white — the latter case 
is much more rare but railroad companies are forced 
to reject a* large per cent of applicants for positions 
where the quick recognition of certain colors is a "sine 
qua non." 



136 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

But while poets are not made, persons who so de- 
sire, may educate themselves into certainly not becom- 
ing good colorists but into a knowledge of the laws 
governing coloring and when they understand them 
fairly well they will be able to design color schemes 
which will not be an outrage upon the vision of persons 
of taste who are naturally able to recognize harmonious 
coloring. 

86. The subject of color harmony is too deep a 
topic to elucidate in even a desultory manner in the 
small space which can be devoted to it in a manual 
which is to treat of the whole subject-matter of paint 
and painting. All that can be done is to point the 
reader the way to a deeper study of harmony in books 
devoted to the subject of which many have appeared 
recently. 

To understand how to harmonize colors one must 
first of all become acquainted with a knowledge of 
what colors are. These are the result of decomposition 
of light which is white and which is the result of the 
perfect union of all colors. The rainbow with its beau- 
tiful coloring does on a large scale what a glass prism 
breaking the sun's rays does on a smaller scale; it 
decomposes the rays into the various colors of the 
spectrum. 

This decomposition of light shows in reality to the 
naked eye but three groups of three colors' each, the 
last three but faintly, however, while the first three 
alone cannot be divided and therefore are called the 
primary colors; they are : Red, yellow and blue. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 137 

8y. Secondary colors, also three in number, are 
formed by the mixture of any two of the primaries, 
thus: Red and yellow gives orange, red and blue 
gives purple and yellow and blue gives green. So 
orange, purple and green are the secondary colors. 

88. A third trio of colors is produced by the mix- 
ture of any two of the secondaries thus: Orange and 
green gives citrine; green and purple gives olive and 
orange and purple gives russet. So citrine, olive 
and russet constitute the three tertiary colors. 

89. The further combination of the tertiaries pro- 
duce an infinity of neutral grays with an addition of 
white or black. 

It must be born in mind that to produce a perfect 
harmony that the primaries or their equivalents in 
secondary or tertiary colors ought to be present to pro- 
duce a perfect harmony in about the same proportion 
as they exist in the spectrum and in which they unite 
to produce perfect light or white. 

90. But other harmonies can be produced by graded 
shades of the same color. Such an harmony is always 
pleasing to the eye and are always in good taste, so 
that a person can hardly err in giving satisfactory re- 
sults if he treats his decorative scheme in this way. 
This is called harmony by analogy. 

91. Harmony by contrast is much more difficult to 
master, as it is not only the coloring used in the decora- 
tion that must be taken into consideration but that of 
the furniture and draperies. Besides there are a great 



138 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

many things which must be well understood which en- 
hance or detract from the effects to be had from the 
use of any color. 

A good general rule to follow, is: that the comple- 
mentary colors (as are called the contrasting opposites) 
should be used in about the same proportion as the 
three primary colors themselves stand in the forma- 
tion of pure white. The primary colors stand in the 
proportion of three parts red, five parts yellow and 
eight parts blue in the make up of white light; then 
if the leading color used in the decoration is blue, it 
follows that red and yellow or the product of their 
combination, orange is the complementary color of blue 
and either that or the color value of these in others 
either secondary or tertiaries must be used in about 
the proportion needed of the primaries in making them 
would have stood to make white light. If yellow is the 
main color ground, blue and red or their tertiary equiv- 
alents or secondary, which is purple, must be the comple- 
mentary color to use. If the main color be red then 
green, which is the result of the union of blue and 
yellow, is the contrasting color of red. 

It does not follow however that a pleasing contrast 
will follow even by a proper use of opposites, unless 
these are of the right tones and shades and as these de- 
pend upon a number of qualifying circumstances which 
will have great influence in the making of a perfect 
blend, the laws of color relation to each other and of 
the effect of neutrals and of black and white must be 
well understood. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 139 

92. The secondary and tertiary colors are simply 
combinations of the primaries and their source must 
be carefully noted, so that the equivalent of the oppo- 
sites may be furnished as they are necessary to form 
a good harmony by contrast. 

93. The rules given are general and must be very 
incomplete even then as so much must be taken in con- 
sideration as influencing the results in the use of color 
that the reader must be referred to some good treatise 
on color harmony treating the subject-matter fully. 
Then only can one understand why it is that after 
having chosen proper complementary colors, that the 
contrast seems dull or out of harmony. The knowledge 
of the effect neutral tones have in heightening or de- 
pressing colors or why certain tones should be used 
instead of others of the same color will then be un- 
derstood and even a partially color blind decorator will 
not commit any unpardonable sins — in harmonizing 
colors. 

QUESTIONS ON COLOR HARMONY. 

85. What is said of color harm.ony? 

86. What are the primary colors? 

87. What are the secondary colors ? 

88. What are the tertiary colors ? 

89. What are further combinations called? 

90. What is harmony by analogy? 

91. What is harmony by contrast? 



140. Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

92. What is the harmony of contrast of the second- 
ary and tertiaries? 

93. What is further said regarding harmony? 

COLOR MIXING. 

94. The mixing of tints requires some care and 
attention but is not as difficult to understand as many 
suppose it to be. If the rules given below are strictly 
followed, even a novice will come very near to the 
matching of sample tints — at least of such as are mostly 
used and with the tones of which he is familiar. 

There is a wide difference between mixing tints in 
oil or in water colors. ,In the former a person can 
see for himself just what the mixture is all through 
the stages of the mixing but in water colors the tints 
show so much darker than they will be when dry ^-hat 
somewhat different rules must be adopted to mix 
the two. 

RULES FOR MIXING COLORS IN OIL. 

95. a. The base color is always the most impor- 
tant one. It may be any color and here is where some 
good judgment is at times required to determine what 
that is, when one has to choose it for himself in trying 
to match certain samples. Usually it is a white if the 
tint is at all light in tone. If it be a dark one, the 
mixer should be sufficiently well acquainted with colors 
to judge at a glance which must be used as having 
the prevailing importance in the make up of the tint 
and that is the base. 



Modern Painter's 'Cyclopedia 141 

b. This base should be well broken up in linseed 
oil but not nearly as thin as it should be for application 
with a brush. If it be white lead, the most usual base 
for all light tints, it is better to have it well broken up 
the day before as then all small lumps will be dis- 
solved and when it has been well stirred up, it will be 
uniform throughout — a very important requisite. 

c. The tinting pigments or colors which it will be 
necessary to add to the base for producing the tint 
should be pretty well thinned with linseed oil and tur- 
pentine half and half. It is of great importance that 
no lumps or specks remain undissolved in these and 
they should be thinned somewhat more than stated for 
that of the lead base. If necessary they should be 
strained through a fine meshed paint strainer. 

d. The pigment entering in the largest quantity in 
the make up of a tint aside of the base should now be 
mixed with it — not by pouring it in all at once and 
thus overshooting the mark, but very gradually and 
should be well stirred up to insure uniform incorpora- 
tion. It should not be added to the full extent needed 
for the tint, but just short of it. Proceed next to add 
in the other colors needed in the same manner as stated 
above. When all the pigments required have been well 
stirred up, if the mark has not been overshot, the re- 
sulting tint will be very near to the color wanted and 
by a further addition of this or that one, the tint will 
be brought up to just where it is wanted. If too much 
coloring pigment has been put in however it is easy to 



142 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

understand that it cannot be taken out. Then the 
only remedy is to add more base to counteract the too 
great quantity of color used and also of the rest of the 
tinting colors and this usually means loss of material 
where too much has been mixed. 

e. A list of principal tints is given further on. 
Many are so very closely related that but some who 
desire to make them, might be misled, they might as 
well have been left out. Another word — what one man 
understands as an apple green may be very different 
from what another's idea of what an apple green ought 
to be and so on all through the list. For this and other 
reasons the quantity of each is not given. The other 
reasons are that some colors of the same name bought 
of various manufacturers may be twice, thrice and 
even four or ten times stronger in coloring than others 
and a tint would be utterly ruined if quantities were 
given. The colors are named according to the im- 
portance they occupy in making the tints. The more 
important being named after the base and the least — 
last. 

96. Tints in water colors require about the same 
coloring pigments to produce any given tint as in oil 
and the same advice about not overdoing the addition 
of the pigments to the base is even more needed. The 
base for tints is usually whiting or some other earth 
white which has been properly thinned with glue water. 
But after colors also thinned with glue water have been 
added, as the tint appears much darker than it really 



Modern Painter^s Cyclopedia 14:i 

is, it will be necessary to ''try" it. Dip a small piece 
of paper in it and place it in the sun or upon a stove 
and dry it. As soon as dry the true tone of the color 
will show up and any colors lacking can be added — 
gradually, well stirred up and tried by heat again, 
being always careful to have it just a trifle under than 
above the mark. This trying is tedious, it is true, 
but much less so than having to throw away the whole 
batch and commence the mixing all over again — and 
less expensive too. 

LIST OF TINTS. 

97. Acacia. Lampblack for base, colored with 
Indian red and tinged with Prussian blue. 

Acorn brown. See Chocolate as it is nearly the 
same but lightened up with white lead. 

Alderney brown. Lampblack, orange chrome yel- 
low, French ochre, white lead. 

Alabaster. White lead for base, add enough me- 
dium chrome yellow to very slightly tinge it. 

Amaranth. Tuscan red and vermillion for base, add 
enough ultramarine blue to shade wanted. 

Anemone. Vermillion red for base, add Prussian 
blue to suit shade wanted and a trifle of black and white 
lead or zinc which is better. 

Antique bronze. Orange chrome yellow for base, 
add ivory black. Lampblack can be used but shade 
will not be so bright. 

Antwerp blue. Ultramarine blue for base, add 



144 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

chrome green to shade wanted, Hghten up with zinc 
white. 

Apple green. White lead for base, add light chrome 
green and orange chrome yellow. 

Apricot. Medium chrome yellow for base; Vene- 
tian red and carmine lake. If a light shade is wanted 
lighten it up with zinc white. 

Armenian red. Bright Venetian red for base, light- 
ened up with French ochre. 

Asiatic bronze. Raw umber for base; medium 
chrome yellow to which add sufficient white lead for 
shade wanted. 

Ash gray. White lead for base; tinge with lamp- 
black ; add a bit of French ochre. 

Autumn leaf. White lead for base; to which add 
French ochre, orange chrome yellow, a trifle Venetian 
red to tinge it to tone of red desired. 

Azure blue. White lead for base, but zinc white is 
better; add Prussian blue to shade of it desired. 

Bay. Lampblack for base; add Venetian red and 
orange chrome yellow. 

Begonia. Vermillion red of a good scarlet shade for 
base ; tinge with Prussian blue and lampblack. 

Bismark brown. Burnt sienna for base; add burnt 
umber and orange chrome yellow ; lighten slightly with 
white lead to suit. 

Black slate. Lampblack for base; Prussian blue; 
slightly lighten it up with white lead. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 145 

Bordeaux blue. Lampblack for base ; Prussian blue, 
orange chrome yellow. 

Bottle green. Lampblack and Prussian blue for base ; 
lemon chrome yellow; to obtain this color at its best 
glaze it over with a yellow lake. 

Brass. White lead for base; add medium chrome 
yellow and French ochre to shade of it wanted. 

Bronze hhie. Lampblack for base ; tinge with Prus- 
sian blue and slightly lighten with white lead. 

Bronze green. Extra dark chrome green for l^ase ; 
add lampblack. For a richer tone of it : medium chrome 
gieen for base, add ivory black and a trifle of raw 
umber. 

Bronze red. Vermillion red for base; add orange 
chrome yellow and a trifle of lampblack. 

Bronze yellozv. Medium chrome yellow for base; 
raw umber, lighten up to suit with white lead. 

Brick color. Yellow ochre for base; add Venetian 
red to suit ; for very light shades add white lead in very 
small quantity. 

Brown stone. Tuscan red for base; add orange 
chrome yellow; lighten up to suit with white lead. 
Some shades of it require a bit of ivory black. 

Brozvns and Brown drabs — all shades. Venetian red 
for base; add French ochre and lampblack in various 
proportion according to shades of brown wanted. For 
the brown drabs add white lead to reduce the above 
brown tints. 



146 Modem Painter's Cyclopedia 

Buttercup. White lead for base ; add lemon chrome 
yellow to suit shade wanted. 

Cafe au lait. Burnt umber for base ; add white lead, 
French ochre and Venetian red. 

Cambridge red. Vermillion for base ; add Prussian 
blue to suit. 

Canary. Use chrome yellow of that name or lemon 
yellow for base, lightened up with zinc white. 

Carnation. English vermillion for base; add good 
madder lake or carmine. If wanted very light, add 
zinc white. 

Celestial blue. Prussian blue for base ; chrome green 
and zinc white. 

Cerulean blue. Zinc white for base ; add ultramarine 
blue of good tone to suit. 

Chamois. White lead for base; add French ochre, 
medium chrome yellow to suit, redden it with a little 
burnt sienna. 

Chamoline. White lead for base; add raw sienna, 
lemon chrome yellow to suit. 

Chartreuse. Medium chrome yellow for base; add 
some medium chrome green. 

Chestnut. Venetian red for base; add medium 
chrome yellow, French ochre and lampblack to suit. 

Chocolate. Burnt umber for base ; add rich crimson 
vermillion red or lake. Another which is cheaper but 
not so rich: French ochre for base; add lampblack 
a'^ Venetian red to suit. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 147 

Cinnamon. White lead for base; add burnt sienna,' 
French ochre, medium chrome yellow. 

Crimson. Deep English vermillion or any of the 
crimson shades of vermillion reds. If desired very rich, 
add some of the crimson lakes or glaze with them. 

Claret. Madder lake and ultramarine blue for base, 
to which add English vermillion and ivory black. 

Clay bank. French ochre for base ; add orange chrome 
yellow, lighten up with white lead to shade desired. 

Clay drab. White lead for base; medium chrome 
yellow, raw and burnt umber. 

Cobalt blue. This is a solid blue. Good ultrama- 
rine blue ; lighten up to suit with zinc white. 

Cocoanut brozvn. Burnt umber for base; lightened 
up with white lead. 

Colonial yellow. White lead for base ; add medium 
chrome yellow, tinge with a trifle of orange chrome 
yellow. 

Copper. Medium chrome yellow ; tinged with burnt 
sienna. 

Coral pink. Vermillion for base ; white lead, medium 
chrome yellow. 

Co trine. White lead for base; add orange chrome 
yellow and lampblack. 

Cream color and all the buffs. White lead for base ; 
add some good French or Oxford ochre to make the 
shade of them wanted. More or less of the ochre added 
to the base will make an affinity of shades of that 
order. 



148 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Dove color. White lead for base; add ultramarine 
blue, Indian red and lampblack. 

Dregs of wine. Dark Tuscan red for base ; add white 
lead and a trifle of zinc white. 

Ecru. White lead for base ; add French ochre, burnt 
sienna, lampblack. The tint has a wide range of tones. 

Electric blue. Ultramarine blue for base ; add white 
lead and raw sienna. 

Emerald. Paris green as it is, or better an imita- 
tion of it, in very light chrome green. 

Egyptian green. White lead for base ; add raw um- 
ber, lemon chrome yellow, Prussian blue to suit. 

Fawn. White lead for base; add medium chrome 
yellow, Venetian red, burnt umber. 

Flesh color. White lead for base; add medium 
chrome yellow, French ochre and Venetian red. 

Fog blue. Burnt sienna for base ; add Prussian blue, 
then lighten up with white lead to suit. 

French blue. Ultramarine blue for base ; lighten up 
with zinc white to shade wanted and tinge it slightly 
with light chrome green. 

French gray. White lead for base; add ivory black 
with a faint tinge of ultramarine blue and madder lake 
or carmine. 

French red. Indian red for base; add English pale 
Vermillion to brighten it, then glaze with madder red or 
carmine. 

Gazelle. French ochre for base; add Tuscan red, 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 149 

Venetian red, lampblack, lighten up to suit with white 
lead. 

Geranium. Vermillion red for base ; add Indian red 
and a trifle of ivory black. 

Gobelin blue. Ivory black for base ; add white lead, 
Prussian blue and a trifle of medium chrome green. 

Gold. White lead for base ; add medium chrome yel- 
low, some good bright French ochre and a very little 
English Vermillion or vermillion red of good tone. 

Golden brown. French ochre for base; add orange 
chrome yellow, lampblack . Lighten up with white lead 
to suit. 

Grass green. Extra light chrome green just as it 
comes from the can or lighten up the light chrome green 
with canary chrome yellow. 

Gray green. White lead for base; add ultramarine 
blue, lemon chrome yellow, lampblack. 

Granite blue. White lead for base ; lampblack, Prus- 
sian blue. 

Green stone. White lead for base; add medium 
chrome green, raw umber, and French ochre. 

Gray stone. White lead for base; add lampblack, 
Prussian blue, Venetian red. 

Gray drabs — all shades of them. White lead for 
base ; add lamp or drop black with a little burnt umber 
in various proportions according to the depth and shade 
of drab wanted. 

Grays, all shades. White lead for base ; lampblack in 
various proportions to suit shade wanted. 



150 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Hay color. White lead for base ; add orange chrome 
yellow, light chrome green, Indian red. 

Heliotrope. Zinc white for base; add bright Ven- 
etian red and ultramarine blue. 

Indian pink. White lead for base; add Indian red. 

Indian brown. Indian red for base; add lampblack, 
French ochre. 

Iron gray. Lampblack for base ; add white lead and 
a trifle of orange chrome yellow. 

Ivy green. French ochre for base; add lampblack, 
Prussian blue. 

Jasper. Lampblack for base; add medium chrome 
yellow, light Indian red. 

Jonquil. White lead for base; add medium chrome 
yellow to which should be added a tinge of red with 
English pale vermillion. 

Lavender. White lead for base; add ivory black, 
ultramarine blue, tinge with carmine or madder lake. 

Leaf buds. White lead for base ; add orange chrome 
yellow, light chrome green. 

Lead color. See Grays, 

'Leather, French ochre for base ; add burnt umber. 
If a warm tone is wanted add Venetian red. 

Lemon. Use the chrome yellow of that name. 

Lilac. White lead for base ; add dark Indian red to 
suit. 

London smoke. Yellow ochre for base; add ultra- 
marine blue, lampblack, lighten up to suit with white 
lead. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 151 

Magenta. Vermillion for base; add carmine or 
madder lake with a tinge of ultramarine blue. 

Manila or deck paint. White lead for base; add 
French ochre, medium chrome yellow. 

Marigold. Medium chrome yellow for base; add 
white lead, orange chrome yellow. 

Maroon. Carmine or madder lake for base; add 
ivory black and a bit of orange chrome yellow. A 
cheaper way : Tuscan red for base ; add orange chrome 
yellow and some ivory black. 

Mastic. White lead base; add French ochre, Ven- 
etian red and a trifle of lampblack. 

Mexican red. Bright Venetian red for base; add 
red lead. . 

Mignonette. Medium chrome green for base; add 
Prussian blue, medium chrome yellow, lampblack. 

Mascot. Lampblack for base ; add Prussian blue to 
suit. 

Mauve. Ultramarine blue for base ; add zinc white, 
tint with madder lake. 

Methyl blue. Ultramarine for base; add medium 
chrome green and a tinge of red. 

Moorish red. Vermillion red for base; add madder 
lake. 

Mouse color. White lead for base; add lampblack, 
a tinge of Venetian red and burnt umber. 

Moss rose. Lemon chrome yellow for base; add 
medium chrome green; lighten up with white lead to 
suit. 



152 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Mountain blue. White lead for base; add madder 
lake, ultramarine blue. 

Navy blue. Ultramarine blue for base; add ivory 
black. 

Neutral blue. Prussian blue for base ; add raw um- 
ber and lighten up with white lead to suit. 
- Nile blue. White lead for base; add Prussian blue 
with a trifle of medium chrome green. 

Normandy bliie. Medium chrome green; ultrama- 
rine blue, a trifle of white lead. 

Nut brown. Lampblack for base ; add Venetian red, 
medium chrome yellow, French ochre. 

Oak color. Light and dark shades of it. White lead 
for base; add French ochre and a small quantity of 
Venetian red; vary quantities to suit light or dark 
shades. 

Old gold. White lead for base ; add medium chrome 
yellow, French ochre and a little burnt umber. 

Olive. Lemon chrome yellow for base; add about 
equal parts of Prussian blue and lampblack. Some 
shades of olive can be made by substituting French 
ochre for lemon chrome yellow, when, of course, the 
tone will not be so bright. A trifle of lemon chrome 
added to the ochre will improve it and still make an- 
other variety of it. 

Olive brown. Raw umber for base; add lemon 
chrome yellow. Vary the quantity to suit depth of tone 
wanted. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 153 

Opal gray. White lead for base ; add burnt sienna, 
ultramarine blue. 

Oriental hliie. White lead for base; add Prussian 
blue, lemon chrome yellow. 

Oriental green. Raw umber for base; add lemon 
chrome yellow to suit. 

Orange. Orange chrome yellow as it comes from 
the can. 

Orange brown. Orange chrome yellow for base ; add 
raw sienna, a trifle of burnt umber. 

Peach blossom. White lead for base; add pale 
Indian red to suit. A tinge of madder lake will enrich 
it. 

Pearl. White lead for base ; add ivory black and a 
trifle of ultramarine blue and carmine lake. This is 
a very light shade just off the white. It must not be 
overdone. 

Pea green. White lead for base; add medium 
chrome green to suit. 

Peacock blue. Ultramarine blue for base ; add extra 
light chrome green and zinc white to suit. 

Persian orange. Orange chrome yellow for base; 
add French ochre, white lead. 

Pistache. Ivory black for base; add French ochre, 
medium chrome green. 

Pink. Zinc white for base ; add madder lake or car- 
mine or the crimson shades of vermillion. 

Pompeian red. Vermillion red base; add orange 
chrome yellow, a bit of ivory black. 



154 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Pompeian blue. White lead tfese; add ultramarine 
blue, Vermillion red, French ochre. 

Plum color. White leiad for base; add Indian red, 
ultramarine blue. 

Portland stone. French ochre for base; add raw 
umber ; lighten up to suit with white lead. 

Primrose. White lead for base ; add lemon or med- 
ium yellow chrome, according to the shade wanted. 

Purple. White lead for base; add dark Indian red 
and a trifle of light Indian red to suit. 

Purple brown. Dark Indian red for base ; add ultra- 
marine blue, a trifle of lampblack and white lead to 
lighten up to suit. 

Quaker green. White lead for base; add French 
ochre, lampblack and burnt sienna. 

Roan. Lampblack for base ; add Venetian red, Prus- 
sian blue ; lighten it up to suit with white lead. 

Robin's egg blue. White lead for base ; add ultrama- 
rine until the shade is a deep blue, then add some pale 
chrome green to suit tone desired of it. 

Russet. White lead for base; add orange chrome 
yellojkV, a trifle of lampblack and Prussian blue. 

Russian gray. White lead for base; add ultrama- 
rine blue, pale Indian red and lampblack. 

Sage green. White lead for base; add medium 
chrome green until the tint is nearly but not quite a pea 
green, then add lampblack to tinge it the sage tint. 

Salmon. White lead for base; add French ochre, 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 155 

burnt sienna, with a trifle of English vermiUion or a 
♦ good vermiUion red. 

Sapphire blue. Zinc white for base ; add ultramarine 
blue. 

Sap green. White lead for base ; add medium chrome 
yellow, lampblack. 

Sea green. White lead base ; add Prussian blue, raw 
sienna. 

Seal brown. Burnt umber for base ; add good French 
ochre and a trifle of white lead. 

Scarlet. Pale English vermiUion or any of the scar- 
let toned vermiUion reds. 

Shrimp pink. White lead base; add Venetian red, 
burnt sienna and a trifle of vermiUion. 

Sky blue. White lead for base ; add Prussian blue to 
suit. 

Slate. White lead for base; add raw umber, ultra- 
marine blue, lampblack. 

Spruce yellozi'. French ochre for base; add Ven- 
etian red ; lighten up with white lead to suit. 

Snuff color. French ochre for base ; add burnt um- 
ber and a bit of Venetian red. 

Straw color. Medium chrome yellow for base ; add 
French ochre; a bit of Venetian red; lighten up with 
white lead. 

Stone color and yellow drabs. White lead for base ; 
add French ochre ; tinge up with medium chrome yellow 
and burnt umber. By varying quantities all shades of 
yellow^ drab can be made. 



156 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

Tan. White lead for base; add burnt sienna and a 
trifle of lampblack. 

Tally-Ho. White lead for base; add French ochre, 
Venetian red, dark chrome green with a bit of ivory 
black. 

Terra-cotta, French ochre for base; add Venetian 
red and white lead. Some shades of it require the 
addition of Indian red. If some rich shades are wanted 
use orange chrome yellow in place of French ochre; 
add Venetian red and a trifle of burnt umber to suit. 

Turquoise blue. White lead for base, or better zinc 
white and cobalt blue; Paris green or pale chrome 
green. 

Vienna brown. Burnt umber for base; add Ven- 
etian red, French ochre, and lighten with white lead to 
suit. 

Violet. White lead for base ; add pale Indian red, a 
trifle of dark Indian red. 

Willow green. White lead for base; add sufficient 
medium chrome yellow to make a pretty deep shade; 
then add a small quantity of raw umber and ivory black. 

Wine color, English vermillion or scarlet toned 
Vermillion red for base; add madder lake or carmine, 
ultramarine blue, lampblack. 

Another way : Dark Tuscan red of good quality to 
which add a trifle of ivory black. 

Water green. White lead for base ; add raw sienna, 
dark chrome green. 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 157 

Yellow bronze. Lemon or medium chrome yellow 
for base ; add French ochre and a trifle of burnt umber. 

QUESTIONS ON COLOR MIXING. 

94. What is said about color mixing in general ? 

95. a. What is a base for a tint ? 

h. How must the base be prepared? 

c. How are the tinting colors prepared ? 

d. How must one proceed to mix the tinting 

colors with the base ? 

e. What advice is given in this section? 

96. How are tints in water colors made ? 

97. Pupils should familiarize themselves with the 
tints given and refer to them when they want to know 
how to make them. 

COLOR TESTING. 

98. Under the heading of ''Colors," paragraph yih, 
the reader will have noticed probably what has been 
said concerning the chief role played by barytes in the 
paint world. He may have noticed also what is said in 
paragraphs 5 to 7 inclusive, under the heading of 
"Adulterations in relation to the scale test as indicating 
the relative strength of coloring matter contained in 
pigments." As a fairly full explanation of the test is 
there given, it may be well to read that portion over 
again as it is not necessary to repeat it here, and it 
plays a very important part in testing the value of 
many pigments. 



158 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

There is no better test for nearly all manufactured 
colors having a recognized chemical formula and be- 
sides it nearly always indicates (indirectly) the quality 
of tone in the tints made while making the test; but 
after all this test does not show everything connected 
with the testing of colors nor is it applicable to a large 
number of valuable pigments, therefore the subject mat- 
ter of this heading will be considered from the several 
points which have a bearing upon enhancing or depreci- 
ating the value of pigments. 

The following are points which are recognized uni- 
versally as having something to do in determining 
values; some for one class of pigments, others for an- 
other class and some are applicable to all : 

1. Purity of material. 

2. Purity of tone, brilliancy, richness. 

3. Fineness of grinding and preparation. 

4. Spreading capacity. 

5. Its body; applying only to opaque or semi- 
opaque pigments. 

6. Its staining power or tinting strength with white 
lead. 

7. The quality of purity of their tones with whites. 

8. If a paste color the consistency of the paste. 

PURITY OF PIGMENTS. 

99. All chemically prepared pigments which have a 
well known formula which is recognized among color 
men as such, have that for a standard of purity. White 



Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 159 

lead, zinc white, Prussian blue, the chrome yellows, 
greens, etc., belong to this class. The word pure here 
means only this : that they contain no adulteration, but 
it does not take into consideration, the quality of tone, 
fineness of grinding, brilliancy, etc., each of which is 
an important factor in determining the relative value of 
pigments. The scale test is very valuable in determin- 
ing the strength of this class of pigments and usually 
this is the most important point in the judging of val- 
ues. A color may be very pure and still be very poor, 
but the above statement applies with more force to the 
earth or natural pigments than to those that are chem- 
ically prepared. Yet it is sometimes necessary to have 
recourse to all the points named in the preceeding para- 
graph to fully determine the true value of a pigment. 

PURITY OF TONE OF PIGMENTS. 

lOO. This test is applicable to all classes of pig- 
ments and the chemically prepared colors should have 
it applied as well as the others for a Prussian blue or a 
chrome yellow may have such a poor tone as to be val- 
ueless and still be chemically pure and for the natural 
or earth pigments this test is of the greatest importance 
and leads all others. In paragraphs 3 to 8, good advice 
is given in relation to chosing some good standard col- 
ors to judge others by. The reader will do well to 
keep a supply of all such as he is likely to need in testing 
other colors- by and comparing their tones. Brilliancy 
is as desirable as purity of tone and usually the two are 



160 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 

inseparable for it is inconceivable of a pigment of a 
good pure tone that it has not brilliancy also, so that 
there is no need of a separate test for it. Richness is 
also an inherent quality belonging to purity of tone and 
it must be inferred as it cannot be separated from it. 

FINENESS OF GRINDING. 

There are several methods of determining the fine- 
ness of grinding of pigments. The fineness of grinding 
of any color but those of crystallic formation is very 
important as it gives them more spreading power, 
makes them more absorbent of linseed oil, which in out- 
side painting means more durability and as finely 
ground pigments can be spread more smoothly, it also 
means additional beauty. For the earth colors such as 
the siennas, the umbers, Vandyke brown, etc., especially 
if used in their self tones, as they are in graining or in 
glazing — fineness of grinding is of much importance 
as it will prevent speckiness, a fault for w^hich the repu- 
tation of a carriage painter or grainer using them may 
suffer much on account of the poor quality of work 
turned out with such. The following methods may be 
used in judging the fineness of grinding: 

The simplest and easiest of all is to place a little bit 
of the pigment upon a piece of clean glass and to re- 
duce it with oil until very thin, then to spread it out 
upon the glass very thinly, then looking through the 
glass holding it so the light will go through it, it will 
show any speck or imperfect grinding. Another way 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 175 

poses a film over the varnish, itself being free from 
tackiness and readily removed by water, will answer 
the purpose. 

Oil Gilding. — Applying the gold. — If the wood to be 
gilded is finished with varnish or otherwise, no 
additional foundation is necessary upon which to lay 
the gold leaf; if the wood is not finished, after it has 
been smoothed and dusted, give it one or two coats 
of parchment size, after it is perfectly dry and hard, 
again smoothing the surface with fine sandpaper. 
That the gold may not adhere to any part of the work 
except where the size is hard, powder the surface 
lightly with whiting from a pounce bag, which is a 
small bag made of material sufficiently loose to permit 
the powdered whiting to sift through as fine dust; if 
preferred, any of the preceding recipes for that 
purpose can be used instead. Remove the surplus 
whiting with the dusting brush, and the work is then 
ready for the size. Apply this with a sable or fit brush 
of the proper size, carefully observing to make the 
outer lines of the design clear and sharp, that the 
work may not appear ragged. Let the size remain 
until it feels tacky, when the gold may be applied. 
This is the most difficult part of the operation, and 
experience is necessary before gold leaf can be laid 
smoothly without a wrinkle or a break. Turn a leaf 
of gold out of the book upon the cushion; breathe 
gently upon the center of the leaf and it will lie flat 
on the cushion; cut it to the proper size by bringing 
the knife perpendicularly over it, and sawing it gently 
until divided. Take your tip (a brush used for the 
purpose) and after drawing it lightly over your hair 
to remove any particles or dust that may be upon it, 
breathe upon it gently, which will dampen it 



176 THE UP-TO-DATE 

sufficiently to cause the leaf of gold to adhere to it; 
lay the tip upon the leaf of gold and carefully 
transfer it to the work; blow upon it gently and it will 
straighten out and adhere. It may be rendered quite 
smooth by slightly dabbing it with a bit of cotton. 
In about an hour wash off the superfluous gold from 
the edges, with a sponge and water. If the article is 
to be exposed to the weather or much wear, the 
gilding may be varnished with copal varnish. 

Burnish. Gilding. — As previously stated, this process 
requires a specially prepared foundation upon which 
to lay the gold, and as the preparation of this 
foundation is a distinct trade, the furniture dealer or 
cabinetmaker seldom finds it necessary to undertake 
it, the articles coming to his hand ready-prepared for 
gilding; but as in repairing picture frames, cornices, 
mirror frames, etc., it frequently becomes necessary 
to renew the foundation, a comprehensive description 
of the whole process is given. 

Preparing the Woodwork. — After smoothing and 
dusting the work, coat the frames in every part with 
boiling-hot parchment size, as previously described, 
then mix a sufficient quantity of whiting with size to 
the consistency of thick cream, and with it by means 
of a brush, coat every part of the frame several times, 
permitting each coat to become perfectly dry before 
proceeding with the next. The wood will thus be 
covered with a layer of hard whiting nearly or quite a 
sixteenth of an inch in thickness. The size must not 
be too thick, and when mixed with the whiting should 
not be so hot as the preliminary coat of size. 

Polishing. — When the preparations are quite dry, 
clean and polish them. To do this, wet a small piece 
at a time, and, with a smooth, fine piece of cloth, 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 17; 

dipped in water, rub the part till all the bumps and 
inequalities are removed; and for those parts where 
the fingers will not enter, as the mouldings, etc., wind 
the wet cloth round a piece of wood, and by this 
means make the surface all smooth and even alike. 

Where there is carved work, etc., it will sometimes 
be necessary to bring the mouldings to their original 
sharpness by means of chisels, gouges, etc., as the 
preparation will be apt to fill up all the finer parts oi 
the work, which must be thus restored. It is some- 
times the practice, after polishing, to go over the 
work once with fine yellow or Roman ocher; but this 
is rarely necessary. 

Applying the Size. — Select the proper gold size from 
the recipes previously given; add parchment size until 
it will just flow from the brush; make it quite hot, 
and apply it to the wood with a very soft brush, 
taking care not to make the first -coat too thick; let 
it dry and give two or three successive coats, after the 
last brushing it with a stiff brush to remove any 
inequalities. The work is then ready for the gold. 

Laying the Gold. — The manipulation of the gold leaf 
has been described under the heading Oil Gilding. In 
the paint now being described, size used (being water 
size, which, as previously explained, is permitted to 
become hard and dry after being applied) must be 
moistened to cause the gold leaf to adhere to it. For 
this purpose, with a long-haired camel-hair pencil, 
dipped in water, go over as much of the work as you 
intend the piece of gold to cover; then lay the gold 
upon it in the manner previously explained. Be sure 
that the part to which the gold is applied is 
sufficiently wet; indeed, it must be floating, or the 
gold will be apt to crack. Proceed in this manner a 



178 THE UP-TO-DATE 

little at a time, and do not attempt to cover too muck 
at once, until by experience you are going to handle 
the gold with freedom. 

Burnishing. — When the work is covered with gold, 
set it by to dry; there is a particular state or degree 
of dryness, known only by experience, in which the 
moulding is in a fit state for burnishing; it will 
probably be ready to burnish in about eight or ten 
hours, but it will depend on the warmth of the room 
or state of the air. 

When it is ready, those parts intended to be 
burnished must be dusted with a soft brush; then, 
wiping the burnisher with a piece of soft wash-leather 
(quite dry), begin to burnish about an inch or two in 
length at a time, taking care not to bear too hard, but 
with a gentle and quick motion, applying the tool 
until all the parts of the surface are equally bright. 

Matting or Dead Gold. — Certain portions only of the 
work are burnished, according to the fancy, and the 
facility with which the burnishing tool can be applied; 
the remaining parts are now to be deprived of their 
metallic luster, to make a more effective contrast with 
the burnishing. The parts thus treated are said to be 
matted or dead gold. The process is as follows: 

Grind some vermilion or yellow ocher very fine, 
and mix a very small portion either with the parch- 
ment size or with the white of an egg, and with a very 
soft brush lay it evenly on the parts to be dulled; if 
well done, it will add greatly to the beauty of the 
work. Previous to matting, the work must be well 
cleared of superfluous gold, by means of a soft brush. 

Finishing. — In elaborate works it is frequently 
impossible to lay gold leaf into all the intricacies of 
an elaborate design, and the parts thus left bare must 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 179 

be finished by touching up with a small brush charged 
with shell gold, or gold powder, mixed with gum 
Arabic to the proper consistency. The following 
recipe describes the preparation of shell gold: 

Shelled Gold. — Take any quantity of leaf gold and 
grind it with a small portion of honey, to a fine 
powder, add a little gum arable and sugar candy, with 
a little water, and mix it well together; let it dry. 

Silver Size. — Grind pipe clay fine with a little black 
lead and good soap, and add parchment size as 
directed for gold size. 

Composition for Frame Ornaments. — The ornaments 
for gilded mirror frames, etc., are usually moulded 
from some plastic substance that is somewhat 
tougher and more durable than the ordinary gildinj^ 
foundation of whiting and size. The proper moulds 
being prepared, they are thoroughly rubbed upon the 
inside with sweet oil, and the composition firmly 
pressed in; after removing the mould the cast may be 
dried by a gentle heat, or while still plastic it can be 
applied in its proper place and bent into any position. 
Following are recipes for composition: 

Dissolve I pound of glue in i gallon of water. In 
another kettle boil together 2 pounds of resin, i gill 
of Venice turpentine, and i pint of linseed oil; mix 
all together in one kettle, and boil and stir till the water 
has evaporated. Turn the whole into a tub of finely 
rolled whiting, and work till it is the consistency of 
dough. 

Boil 7 pounds of best glue in 7 half pints of water. 
Melt 3 pounds of white resin in 3 pints of raw linseed 
oil. When the above has been well boiled put them 
into a large vessel and simmer them for half an hour, 
stirring the mixture and taking care that it does not 



i8o THE UP-TO-DATE 

boil over. The whole must then be turned into a 
box of whiting rolled and sifted, and mixed till it is 
of the consistency of dough. 

To Manipulate Gold Leaf. — Get a piece of paper, thin 
enough to show shadow of gold leaf through, slightly 
wax it, lay it on gold leaf; the latter will then adhere, 
and can be easily worked and will come off clean. 
The paper should be slightly larger than the gold 
leaf, and the fingers passed over the paper to make 
the gold leaf adhere. 

Bronzing. — This is a process for imitating on xHetal, 
plaster, wood, or other material, the peculiar 
appearance produced by chemical action upon the 
surface of bronze metal. It is accomplished by 
spreading over the surface of the material to be 
ornamented a very thin coating of bronze powder, 
vvhich is caused to adhere either by applying it 
directly upon a coating of any of the sizes mentioned 
in the foregoing pages, or by mixing with a vehicle, 
such as gum arabic or transparent varnish. ^ The 
latter is most desirable, as in the other case, being 
subject to the direct action of the atmosphere, the 
bronze powder soon tarnishes. In ornamenting 
furniture, bronzing is generally employed to represent 
gilding, a variety of bronze called gold bronze being 
used, which affords an excellent imitation, but is not 
very lasting. It is usually applied after the com- 
pletion of the other finishing processes, the ground 
work being prepared in the manner described under 
Oi' Gilding, and the size likewise applied as there 
described. A small wad of cotton batting is then 
.dipped in the bronze and passed gently over the sized 
portions, causing the bronze to adhere. In the other 
method — that of applying the bronze by means of a 



HARDWOOD FINISHER i8i 

vehicle — the preliminaries of whiting the ground and 
sizing are not necessary, a small quantity of bronze 
being simply mixed with the vehicle employed to 
such a degree of fluidity that it will flow easily, and 
in that condition applied with a fine brush. Many 
preparations are used as vehicles, such as transparent 
varnish thinned with turpentine, gum arable dis- 
solved in water, and gold size reduced with parchment 
size. There are a variety of colors in bronze powders, 
and to produce the best effect the size or vehicle 
should be of a color similar to that of the bronze 
used; in gold size the coloring pigment is ocher, and 
in its place, for green bronze, or blue bronze, may be 
employed respectively verditer, vermilion or Prussian 
blue," a very small quantity being sufficient. In 
bronzing on painted work the ground should be as 
nearly as possible the color of the bronze to be 
applied. 

Banana Solution. — The so-called "banana solution" 
(the name being derived from its odor) which is used 
in applying bronzes of various kinds is usually a 
mixture of equal parts of amyl acetate, acetone and 
benzine, with just enough pyroxylin dissolved therein 
to give it sufficient body. Powdered bronze is put 
into a bottle containing this mixture and the paint so 
formed applied with a brush to the article to be 
bronzed. The thin covering of pyroxylin that is left 
after the evaporation of the liquid protects the bronze 
from the air and keeps it from being wiped off by the 
cleanly housemaid. Tarnished picture frames and 
tarnished chandeliers to which a gold bronze has been 
applied frorn such a solution will look fresh and new 
for a long time. Copper bronze as well as gold bronze 
and the various colored bronze powders can be used 



i82 THE UP-TO-DATE 

in the "banana solution" for making very pretty 
advertising signs for use in the drug store. Lettering 
and bordering work upon the signs can be done with 
it. Several stiff, very small painter's brushes are 
needed for such work and they must be either kept in 
the solution when not in use, or, better still, washed in 
benzine or acetone immediately after use and put away 
for future service. It is needless to add that as the 
"banana solution" is volatile it must be kept well 
corked. 

STAINING WOODWORK WITH AOIDS 

For staining wood brown, sulphuric acid, more or 
less diluted, according to the depth of stain desired, is 
applied to the wood, previously cleaned and dried 
with a brush, and when the acid has acted enough its 
further action is arrested by the application of liquid 
ammonia. 

To age oak artificially, liquid ammonia is laid on 
with a rag or brush, which does the work rapidly and 
effectually. 

To darken cherry, rub it over with nitric acid of 1.2 
specific gravity, and after permitting it to stand for 
twelve hours, wash and dry thoroughly. Nitric acid 
gives a permanent yellow stain, which may be con- 
verted into dark brown by subsequent application of 
tincture of iodine. 

A hot, concentrated solution of picric acid gives a 
very fine yellow effect. Aqua fortis, diluted with 
three times its own weight of rain-water, brushed over 
the wood, gives a more true yellow effect than the 
undiluted nitric acid (aqua fortis). 

A bright golden yellow stain is made by digesting 
V2 ounce of powdered madder for twelve hours in 2 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 183 

ounces of sulphuric acid and then filtering through 
cloth. The articles to be stained should be immersed 
in the fluid for three or four days. 

ON HARDWOOD FLOORS 

The finish and care of hardwood or parquette floors 
has been and is now a source of great trouble and 
annoyance to housekeepers. In many cases where 
beautiful floors have been laid, they have been left to 
be finished by persons who have not troubled them- 
selves with finding out the best method of finishing, 
and the usual way for such persons to do is to treat 
them with shellac or varnish, says a writer in one of 
our exchanges. This is all wrong, as a moment's 
thought will convince any one that a surface that is 
constantly walked over needs something different from 
the coating of gum that is left on the surface after 
the spirit used in dissolving the shellac or varnish is 
evaporated. This coating then becomes brittle, and 
is ground up into minute particles by the nails in the 
boots and swept away, leaving the wood bare, right 
where it is most exposed to view. 

As a matter of course, the beauty of the floor is soon 
gone, and instead of being an attractive part of the 
furnishing, the sanitary consideration very often is 
about all that keeps one from nailing a carpet over the 
whole floor. Others use linseed oil, and everybody 
knows that an oil finish is one of the best methods of 
finishing wood, but the objection is, that each time 
the oil is applied it darkens the wood, and in a short 
time the different kinds of wood are of the same color. 
Now the question arises, which is the true and only 
way of finishing floors properly? And the answer is, 
by the use of hard wax, which, however, must be sc 



i84 THE UP-TO-DATE 

prepared that the trouble of applying it and the 
stickiness attending ordinary beeswax and turpentine 
are entirely obviated. The wax is treated with special 
liquids and made into a preparation. 

Among the many different things tried, hard wax 
was found to be the most satisfactory in its results. 
It is so simple, that when once the floor has been 
properly filled and finished with it, any servant can 
renew and keep the floors fresh and bright as long as 
the wood lasts, and as it does not materially change 
the color, the wood always retains its beauty. An 
application about once a year is all that is necessary, 
if the floors are rubbed over, when a little dull, with a 
weighted brush or cloth. 

In repolishing old floors that have been in use for a 
length of time and become dull looking, it is only 
necessary, after they have been cleaned, to rub on a 
thin coat of the hard wax finish with the brush or 
cloth, as stated above. If the floors have been 
varnished and the varnish is worn off in places, as 
mentioned above, the best way is to have the varnish 
scraped off, and then a thin coat of the hard wax 
should be applied and treated as the new wood after 
it is filled. But if it is inconvenient to have the floor 
scraped, or the expense too much, the main object 
being to restore the color in those places which are 
worn and defaced, the following mixture is recom- 
mended: One part linseed oil, I part liquid dryer and 
2 parts turpentine; a cloth should be dampened with 
this and applied to the worn and defaced places, which 
will have the desired effect. After being wiped 
off clean, it ought to dry twenty-four hours, and then 
be polished with the hard wax finish. It is very 
important never to use the wax over oil that is not 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 185 

thoroughly dry, as the floor would invariably be 
sticky. 

Finally, it would be well to mention that hardwood 
or parquette floors should never be washed with soap 
and water, as it raises the grain and discolors the 
wood. After the floors have been properly filled and 
finished with the hard wax, dirt will not get into the 
pores, but stays on the surface and consequently can 
be removed with a brush or cloth, or, if necessary, 
dampen cloth with a little turpentine. This will take 
off any stain from the finish. 

An excellent method of waxing floors is as follows: 
Take i pound of the best beeswax, cut it up into very 
small pieces and let it thoroughly dissolve in 3 pints 
of turpentine, stirring occasionally, if necessary. The 
mixture should be only a trifle thicker than the clear 
turpentine. Apply with a rag to the surface of the 
floor, which should be perfectly clean. This is the 
difficult part of the work; for if too much or too little 
is put on a good polish is impossible. The right 
amount varies, less being required for a hard, close- 
grained wood, and more if the wood is soft and open- 
grained. Try a square foot or two at first. Put on 
what you think will be enough, and leave the place 
untouched and unstepped on for twenty-four hours, or 
longer, if needful. When thoroughly dry, rub with a 
hand brush. If it polishes well, repeat the whole proc- 
ess over the entire floor. If it does not, remove the 
wax with fine sandpaper, and lay again, using more or 
less than before, as may be necessary, and continue 
experimenting until the desired result is secured. If 
the mixture is slow in drying, add one part japan to 
six of turpentine. 

Birch makes an entirely satisfactory floor for dancing. 



186 THE UP-TO-DATE 

as well as for kindred uses. It is easily brought to a 
smooth surface and a fine polish, and is of a rich 
amber color of an even shade. In addition, it has that 
rare elasticity and resiliency that make it alike delight- 
ful for walking and dancing. It costs about lo cents 
laid, and is in no way a disappointment to those using it. 

What is said of birch applies equally well to hard 
maple, both the white and the red varieties, the white 
being that chosen for floors, and is the lightest-colored 
of the woods so used. It is very hard, takes readily a 
fine polish; the boards are not liable to warp, but, 
unfortunately, require the very closest care in the 
drying to prevent shrinkage when laid. It is lasting, 
and is but little affected by water. Only beech, 
hickory and white oak approach it in lightness of 
color. Hickory has sterling qualities-, too generally 
appreciated to need detailed discussion of its intrinsic 
worth, yet it is sadly neglected when the question of 
flooring is under consideration. Perhaps this is due 
to the difficulty with which it is laid. It is an open- 
grain wood, but takes polish with ease. 

Beech makes almost an ideal floor, light-colored and 
hard, and has the rare quality of wearing smoother 
with age; at times it is found beautifully bird's-eyed. 
In the Southern States it grows in the greatest profusion 
in the swamps and lower woods, but is unappreciated, 
only enough being preserved for use in making plane 
stocks and other tools requiring a hard, durable wood 
that does not shrink, warp or split. It could be laid 
for 20 cents per foot. And along with it goes apple, 
which polishes to a rich, delicate amber color; the cost 
being about the same as beech, but the apple wood 
has the tremendous disadvantage of not being obtain- 
able in large boards. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 187 

The laying of a hardwood floor requires not only a 
good carpenter, but an expert judge of woods, and of 
tne individual boards, because only by carefully 
selecting and placing like planks can we get a 
permanently even surface. Suppose a plank of heart 
and one of sap should be placed side by side; no 
matter what the wood, when a rainy season may come 
the sap will swell more and rise above the heart. 
Even when they come from like relative positions in 
two like trees, their texture may differ so widely as to 
make them undesirable companions. In spite of the 
nicest workmanship and the best judgment in select- 
ing, some inequalities of surface will be present till 
removed by the most thorough sandpapering. This 
should be done with enough care to avoid scratching; 
then comes the polishing. 

To get the best results, hardwood floors should be 
laid after the building is thoroughly dry, and in case 
of new building it should be the last work done. 

Care should be taken that the surface on which the 
floor is laid is clean and smooth. Drive the flooring 
well up and be careful not to break the tongue. 

Seven-eighths-inch flooring should be nailed with 
2^-inch special flooring nail. For ^-inch flooring 
l^-inch finishing nail, No. 15, will be found about 
right. 

An oak floor after being laid should be evenly 
cleaned off and sandpapered until perfectly smooth. 
It must then be filled with what is known as "wood 
filler," and allowed to stand for six to ten hours. This 
filler can be made any shade desired. 

If a wax finish is desired, apply two light coats of 
white floor shellac. Let the first coat stand one hour 
before putting on the second. After the second coat 



88 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



has stood for two hours, sandpaper with No. o sand- 
paper and the floor is ready for the wax, an article 
made expressly for this purpose and ready for use. 

Put the wax on as thin as possible and let it stand 
for half an hour, then with a rubbing brush rub across 
the grain of the wood and again lengthways until the 




Fig. 117 



brush slips easily, then take a piece of soft carpet and 
rub until the desired polish is obtained. 

For maple, birch, or other close-grain woods, use 
the same process, omitting the "wood filler " 

Estimate of Material Required. — For laying and finish- 
ing s/s flooring per lOO feet surface: lOO feet ^ floor- 
ing, 2^ pounds finishing brads No. 15, 3^ pounds 
wood filler (for oak only), 3 pints shellac, j4 pound 



HARDWOOD FINISHEli 189 

floor wax. For % flooring, 6 pounds 2}4-\nch flooring 
nails will be sufficient per 100 feet. 

A weighted brush with a long handle is generally 
employed for polishing a wax-finished floor, similar to 
the one shown in Fig. 117. The wax is applied with a 
rag or brush, after the filler has been properly rubbed 
down and all is hard and dry. The weighted brush is 
then rubbed over the surface to and fro until the 
desired polish is attained. 

Stained Floors. — A floor stained to represent dark 
old oak is preferred by many. The mixture for 
accomplishing this is sold at all paint shops, and 
comes in grades i, 2, 3, and 4, varying from light to 
dark. If the boards are smooth and fine-grained, a 
satin wood or pitch pine stain or polish is preferred; 
but if the floor is old or rough it is folly to attempt 
any stain except that of dark oak or dark mahogany. 
Some of the mixtures used for this can be put on with 
a rag, although a brush is better. Pour the liquid into a 
saucer, dip the brush in, saturate thoroughly, rub evenly 
over the wood, and dry instantly with a soft cloth. 

For the ultra-fashionable floor, which is of a pale 
shade of oak, sized and varnished, buy the desired 
amount of raw sienna powder; mix with water, and 
rub into the boards as directed above. Mahogany 
staining: Make a mixture containing ^ pound of 
madder, 2 ounces of logwood chips, boiled in i gallon 
of water; brush this over the wood while hot. When 
dry, go over this with a solution of pearlash, 2 drachms 
to I of water, size and polish. If a redder shade is 
required, it can be produced by smearing the surface 
with a strong solution of permanganate of potash, 
which is left on for five minutes. The wood is then 
carefully washed, dried and polished. 



190 THE UP-TO-DATE 

A good cheap oak stain is made of equal parts of 
potash and pearlash, 2 ounces of each to a quart of 
water. As potash is a solvent, care must be taken to 
keep it from the hands; and an old brush should be 
used. 

For other stains and methods of applying them, see 
recipes described in previous pages, where stains for 
nearly all purposes are given. 

MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS 

Floor Polish. — Cut beeswax into small pieces, or else 
grate it up; add turpentine, and allow the mixture to 
stand for twelve hours; then heat it over the fire till 
it dissolves. Care must be taken not to heat the 
mixture too hot, and also the flame must not come too 
near, for explosive vapors are generated, which are 
liable to catch fire. 

Dull Polish on Stained White wood. —The dull polish 
that is seen on most furniture is obtained by partly 
French polishing the article, and then removing any 
apparent shine or gloss by well brushing the surface 
over with medium grade pumice-powder or fine emery; 
or the stained wood might be coated with spirit 
varnish. In the absence of details as to the purpose 
for which the stained wood is to be used, no other 
procedure can be suggested. Stained floor-boards, for 
instance, would not require French polishing, nor 
even spirit varnishing, because a suitable polish can 
be readily obtained by using beeswax dissolved in 
turpentine, applied with a weighted brush. On the 
other hand, on furniture goods French polish serves 
a double purpose; the polish partly fills the grain or 
pores of the wood, and gives a hard surface that can 
be dulled without rubbing off the stain. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 191 

Refinishing Oak Doors that are Badly Weather- 
Stained. — If possible, take the doors off the hinges and 
lay them down flat on some trusses or boxes, and 
remove the old varnish with ammonia or a mixture of 
2 parts strong ammonia and i part of turpentine and 
benzine, using a stubby brush to get into the cutwork 
and about the mouldings. When all the varnish has 
been removed, dope over stained portions with a 
strong oxalic acid solution, and see whether you can- 
not bleach the wood by that operation. If this will 
not work, you have to resort to staining. Use raw 
sienna for light effect, and, after staining, use paste 
wood filler, colored to match the stain. Then proceed 
as you would on new work. If the light stain does 
not hide the weather stains, you will be obliged to use 
a darker stain and darker filler. 

Coloring Wood Clear Through. — All the sap is expelled 
and the log is then treated with chemicals, and the 
color or colors are pressed into the wood. Any shade 
desired can be obtained, and, in fact, several colors 
can be merged one into the other, producing a very 
beautiful effect. On cutting up the samples we 
received, we found that the color was evenly dis- 
tributed all through the fibers, the grain of the wood 
giving a very pleasing effect, especially when polished. 
The wood, it is claimed, dries sooner than by ordinary 
seasoning, and it can also be rendered fireproof by 
adding special chemicals. Of course, painting is done 
away with, so that the natural structure of the wood 
is seen to better advantage than when painted in 
the ordinary way. The coloring is, we understand, 
free from arsenic and quite harmless; the colors do 
not fade, and, of course, cannot be worn off by rub- 
bing, etc. 



192 • THE UP-TO-DATE 

Cleaning Polished Wood. — A good encaustic, which 
will clean and polish at the same time, may be made 
from wax, sal soda and any good soap. The wax and 
soap should be shaved and dissolved in boiling water. 
Stir frequently and add the soda. Put the mixture in 
something which may be closely covered, and stir 
constantly until cool. This may be applied to floors, 
furniture, marbles, tiles, bricks, etc. It will remove 
ink from polished surfaces. The French use white wax 
on white marbles, but this is not absolutely necessary. 

Finishing Hardwood. — If it is open-grained wood I 
should first fill it with paste filler, then I would give it 
a coat of shellac, and after that I would bring it up 
with a first-class varnish. 

It would be all right to finish it all in shellac if it 
could be kept from moisture, but wherever a drop of 
water touches a shellac finish it will turn white. And 
just as like as not the mistress will set the servants to 
wiping up the hardwood finish with a damp cloth. 
Now a good varnish will stand it, but shellac won't. 
But the best way to clean furniture and hardwood 
work is to use crude oil — only a very little of it — and 
then wipe it off thoroughly with cotton waste or 
cheesecloth. The latter is preferable because it has 
no lint to catch on the woodwork, although if you rub 
it dry enough with cotton waste you can rub off any 
lint that may be left. The crude oil acts as a varnish 
renewer as well as a cleaner. But if it is not 
thoroughly wiped off with plenty of elbow grease it 
will catch the dirt and look pretty bad. Crude oil is 
a good thing, provided you don't use too much of it, 
and then, again, provided you, don't leave it on. 

Making Paste Wood Fillers. — Paste fillers for hard 
woods are made from any of the following materials. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 193 

or a combination of these: silex or silica, terra alba, 
whiting, china clay, starch, rye flour, and sometimes 
barytes. Silex or terra alba will, on drying, give the 
least discoloration to the wood. The pigment should 
be of impalpable fineness and intimately mixed to a 
stiff paste with one-third each of pale linseed oil, pale 
gold size japan and turpentine. This paste may be 
either run through a mill or be given a very thorough 
mixing, and to test it for quality it should be thinned 
with turpentine to the consistency of a varnish, applied 
with a varnish brush to open-grained wood, preferably 
oak, allowed to set for about twenty to thirty minutes, 
and the surplus filler removed by wiping across the 
grain in the usual manner. After twenty-four to 
thirty-six hours, the surface should be lightly sand- 
papered and a good, flowing coat of rubbing varnish 
applied, which, when fairly well set, should not show 
any pitting or pin holes. Should it pit, however, or 
show pin holes or needle points, the filler is defect- 
ive in binding properties, and the portion of japan 
should be increased, with a corresponding decrease in 
the proportion of turpentine. The linseed oil and the 
gold size japan must be of good body, and if corn- 
starch or rye flour is used in connection with silex or 
silica, the proportions should be about one of the 
former to five of the latter by weight. 

Filler for White Ash.— As white ash is a very porous 
wood, it should be treated with an extra light mineral 
paste wood filler, made from clean silex, mixed with 2 
parts bleached linseed oil, 3 parts pale japan gold size 
and I part turps, to stiff paste and thinned for use 
with turpentine to the consistency of medium-bodied 
varnish. When dry and hard the surface should be 
smooth sandpapered and given a coat of white shellac 



194 THE UP-TO-DATE 

varnish, after which it may be finished with rubbing 
varnish, that may be rubbed and pohshed in the ordinary 
way. 

Good Wood Finish. — Richness of effect may be 
gained in decorative woodwork by using woods of 
different tone, such as amaranth and amboyna, by 
inlaying and veneering. The Hungarian ash and 
French wahiut afford excellent veneers, especially the 
burs or gnarls. In varnishing, the varnishes used can 
be toned down to match the wood, or be made to 
darken it, by the addition of coloring matters. The 
patented preparations, known as 'Svood fillers," are 
prepared in different colors for the purpose of pre- 
paring the surface of wood previous to the varnishing. 
They fill up the pores of the wood, rendering the 
surface hard and smooth. For polishing mahogany, 
walnut, etc., the following is recommended: Dissolve 
beeswax by heat in spirits of turpentine until the 
mixture becomes viscid ; then apply, by a clean cloth, 
and rub thoroughly with a flannel or cloth. A common 
mode of polishing mahogany is by rubbing it first with 
linseed oil, and then with a cloth dipped in very fine 
brickdust ; a good gloss may also be produced by 
rubbing with linseed oil, and then holding trimmings 
or shavings of the same material against the work in 
the lathe. Glass-paper, followed by rubbing, also gives 
a good luster. 

There are various means of toning or darkening 
woods for decorative effect, such as logwood, lime, 
brown soft soap, dyed oil, sulphate of iron, nitrate of 
silver exposed to sun's rays, carbonate of soda, 
bichromate and permanganate of potash, and other 
alkaline preparations are all used for darkening woods. 
The last three are specially recommended. The 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 195 

solution is applied by dissolving i ounce of the alkali 
in 2 gills of boiling water, diluted to the required 
tone. The surface is saturated with a sponge of 
flannel, and immediately dried with soft rags. The 
carbonate is used for dark woods. Oil tinged with 
rose madder may be applied to hardwoods like birch, 
and a red oil is prepared from soaked alkanet root in 
linseed oil. The grain of yellow pine can be brought 
out by two or three coats of japan much diluted with 
turpentine, and afterwards oiled and rubbed. To give 
mahogany the appearance of age, lime water used 
before oiling is a good plan. In staining wood, the 
best and most transparent effect is obtained by 
repeated light coats of the same. For oak stain a 
strong solution of oxalic acid is employed; for 
mahogany, dilute nitrous acid. A primary coat, or a 
coat of wood fillers, is advantageous. For mahogany 
stains the following are given: 2 ounces of dragons' 
blood dissolved in I quart of rectified spirits of wine, 
well shaken; or raw sienna in beer, with burnt sienna 
to give the required tone; for darker stains boil j^ 
pound of madder and 2 ounces of logwood chips in t 
gallon of water, and brush the decoction while hot 
over the wood. When dry, paint with a solution ot 2 
ounces of potash in i quart of water. A solution of 
permanganate of potash forms a rapid and excellent 
brown stain. 

Easy Method of Finishing Woodwork.— French polish- 
ing as a means of finishing furniture and woodwork is 
generally regarded as a most tedious operation, owing 
to the number of solutions to be used on work that is 
built up of various kinds of wood, in bringing it up m 
uniform color, and in polishing it so as to bring out 
and reflect to the fullest extent the mprkings or figure 



196 THE UP-TO-DATE 

of the wood. On high-grade goods, with a bright, 
lustrous, level finish this is so. Yet much furniture is 
not of high-grade finish, so far as the polisher 
is concerned; for instance, bedroom furniture that is 
stained green is rarely finished out extra bright, and 
the same may be said of fumed oak goods and many 
American organs. In fact, some goods look far bettei 
with a faintly lustrous polished surface than if finished 
out very bright, especially if. the surface is at all 
uneven or badly cleaned up. A process of finishing 
known as "dry shining" strikes a medium between 
high-grade finish and simple spirit varnishing. In the 
crudest form of this process the work is simply oiled 
and a wet rubber of polish applied all over, not 
sufficient being used to fill the grain, but just enough 
to kill the oil. This treatment is generally considered 
good enough for the insides of drawers, cupboards, 
etc., the object being to remove an unfinished 
appearance and to prevent the surface getting as dirty 
as it otherwise might. From this better degrees of 
finish may be reached. The work may be oiled, filled 
in, one or more rubbers of polish laid on just to fill 
up the grain, and then an even coat of spirit varnish 
applied. If the articles are of white wood, they may 
be stained to imitate some choicer wood before 
oiling; and if the goods are likely to be subject to 
hard wear, the coating of spirit varnish may be 
omitted, the polish being worked out fairly dry to 
ensure the removal of all oil; then apply a coat of 
oak or painter's varnish, which, however, gives a 
bright surface when dry, and is merely mentioned as 
a means of obtaining a bright finish with the minimum 
of trouble. 

Egg-shell finish also does not require the trouble- 



HARDWOOD FINISHER ig; 

some operation of spiriting out. Here the work is 
brought up to a stage nearly approaching that for 
spiriting, but the surface of polish when hard is dulled 
by rubbing or brushing with fine-grade pumice-stone 
powder- or flour emery, in which condition it may be 
left. If a gloss instead of a shine is preferred, the 
wood should have a smart rubbing of beeswax and 
turps. Black work has a specially chaste appearance 
thus finished, and the black stain of logwood and 
iron solution may be used, aniline spirit black being 
employed for imparting density of color to pale 
shellac polish. If it is not convenient to use varnish, 
and a simple solution of shellac in spirits' (4 ounces 
orange shellac dissolved in i pint methylated spirit) 
is the only solution at hand, a passable finish may still 
be gained by enclosing the pad in a piece of soft rag 
and finishing out by working it in straight lines, after 
a body has been put on without a covering. When 
the articles must be stained, it will be found more 
economical to buy the stains ready-made if only a 
small quantity is required. Dry shining has at least 
the merit of building up a surface that can be taken in 
hand again and French polished. 

Metallization of Wood. — Some artisans in Germany 
have succeeded in turning to practical account the 
recently devised process by which wood is made to 
take on some of the special characteristics of metal, 
that is, the surface becomes so hard and smooth as to 
be susceptible of a high polish, and may be treated 
with a burnisher of either glass or porcelain; the 
appearance of the wood being then in every respect 
that of polished metal, having, in fact, the semblance 
of a metallic mirror, but with this peculiar and 
advantageous difference, namely, that, unlike metal, 



198 THE UP-TO-DATE 

it is unaffected by moisture. To reach this result the 
wood is steeped in a bath of caustic alkali for two or 
three days, according to its degree of permeability, at 
a temperature of between 164° and 197° Fahr. ; it is 
then placed in a second bath of hydrosulphate ot 
calcium, to which a concentrated solution of sulphur is 
added, after some twenty-four or thirty-six hours; the 
third bath is one of acetate of lead, at a temperature 
of from 95° to 122°, and in this latter the wood is 
allowed to remain from thirty to fifty hours. After 
being subjected to a thorough drying it is in a con- 
dition for being polished with lead, tin or zinc, as may 
be desired, finishing the process with a burnisher, when 
the wood apparently becomes a piece of shining, 
polished metal. 

How to Tone Down New Mahogany, Oak, etc. — In 
making repairs to furniture, it usually happens thai 
the new wood is considerably lighter in tone than the 
old, and ordinary stains will not match it so as to give 
satisfaction. This can be done easily, however, by 
means of a solution of bichromate of potash. To 
make this, purchase a cent's worth of the chemical, 
and placing it in an ordinary medicine bottle, fill up 
with water and shake until dissolved. To use the 
solution, rub a small quantity on the wood to be 
darkened, and await results. If not dark enough, give 
another coat. It dries in a few minutes, and can be 
sandpapered after, as it is not a surface stain, but a 
chemical one. By a judicious use of the above 
solution it is easy to match old work of any description, 
so that the new and old cannot be distinguished from 
each other. 

Spirit Varnish for Violins. — Spirit varnish is difficult 
to apply evenly, owing to its drying so quickly. The 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 199 

color generally appears streaky. In any case, no 
shellac should be used in the varnish, as shellac is too 
hard. A good spirit varnish is made as follows: 
First size the violin with a mixture of 3 parts of best 
copal varnish and I part of turpentine, applied hot 
with a rag, and well rubbed in. Color ^ pint ot 
alcohol with turmeric and a little red sanders added to 
take away the greenish tinge. Dissolve 2 ounces of 
gum sandarach (juniper) in Y-z pint of alcohol. Put 
the two half-pint mixtures together, and add 2 table- 
spoonfuls of Venice turpentine and 2 ounces of white 
shellac. When dissolved, filter through cotton wool. 

Putting Transfers on Coach Panels. — The method of 
transferring crests and monograms to the panels of 
coaches, etc., is as follows: Cover carefully the face 
of the design (that is, the colored or printed side) with 
a thin, smooth coat of gold size mixed with two or 
three drops of varnish, being careful to cover all parts 
that are to be transferred. Let the gold size coating 
become thoroughly tacky or sticky, then lay the design 
face downward on the panel to be decorated, and roll 
it down smoothly with a rubber roller, pressing out all 
air bubbles. When the adhesive has got quite dry, 
thoroughly soak the paper with water by means of a 
sponge, then gently peel off the paper from one 
corner. Sponge the surface composition off the 
panel, and when the design is quite dry, apply a 
finishing coat of varnish. Transfers can also be applied 
without coating them with gold size, if the panels 
have been recently varnished, and have a good tack 
(that is to say, when the varnish is sticky , as the 
design will then adhere by gentle pressure. 

Paint for Blackboards. — The best blackboard paint is 
made by moistening 4 ounoes dry lampblack with 



200 THE UP-TO-DATE 

alcohol, rubbing it out with a spatula, gradually 
adding I quart of shellac varnish, and stirring into 
this 3 ounces flour of pumice and 3 ounces finely 
pulverized rotten stone; then straining through a fine 
sieve or strainer to break up any lumps that may have 
formed. This is applied quickly to the bare wood, so 
that no laps are formed, and in a day or so a second 
coat may be applied, and after standing a day or two 
longer may be haired or mossed. 

Ebonizing.— Apply to the wood, by means of a brush 
or sponge, a solution of hydrochloric aniline dissolved 
in water, to which has been added a little protochlo- 
ride of copper. When this coating has dried, apply 
similarly a solution of bichromate of potash dissolved 
in water. After this process has been repeated two, 
or at the most three, times, the wood will assume a 
clear, full, durable black color, which is affected 
neither by the action of light nor dampness. 

Polishing Boxwood Draughtmen. —The cheaper class of 
draughtmen are simply coated with a good quality 
spirit varnish, but high-grade goods are polished in the 
lathe. The polish that is used and the method of 
applying the polish differ slightly from the method 
that is employed in polishing flat surfaces. A bright 
finish on both sides and edges is only obtained after 
several handlings, the chief difficulty being the 
manipulation in the early stages, such as the provision 
of. suitable chucks, the avoidance of the use of glass- 
paper, and the knack of using the polish so that it 
will not clog up the finer grooves. If ordinary French 
polish is used, it should not be applied with new 
wadding; a wad made from a rubber that has been used 
on other work should be employed, so that there may 
be less risk of loose fluff sticking to the work while the 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 201 

polishing is being done. The wad would not require 
the rag covering that is usual on flat surfaces. If a 
lathe is not available, very good results could be 
obtained by using polish for sealing up the pores of 
the wood and forming a smooth foundation, and then 
applying carefully a coating of good quality clear 
spirit varnish. Black goods should be stained first 
with French black water stain, and the polishing done 
with black polish. White polish made from bleached 
shellac, or a transparent polish, should be used in 
preference to polish that is made from orange or lemon 
shellac. 

Softening Putty. — To soften putty that has become 
hard by exposure, so as to remove it easily from a 
sash, take i pound of pearlash and 3 pounds of quick- 
Mone lime; slake the lime in water, then add the 
pearlash, and make the whole of about the consistency 
of paint; apply it to both sides of the glass, and let it 
remain for twelve hours, when the putty will be so 
softened that the glass may be taken out of the frame 
with the greatest facility. 

Bruises in Wood. — To take out bruises in furniture, 
wet the part with warm water; double a piece of brown 
paper five or six times, soak it, and lay it on the place; 
apply on that a hot flatiron till the moisture is 
evaporated. If the bruise be not gone, repeat the 
process. After two or three applications, the dent or 
bruise will be raised level with the surface. If the 
bruise be small, merely soak it with warm water, and 
apply a red-hot poker very near the surface; keep it 
continually wet, and in a few moments the bruise will 
disappear. 

Wood Stains. — The following have been published by 
a German paper as formulae for some wood stains, 



202 THE UP-TO-DATE 

which may be put up in a dry form, and when wanted 
for use may be readily dissolved in water: Oak wood 
5 kg. of Cassel brown, .5 kg. of potash, and 10 kg. of. 
rain-water, boiled together for an hour, the whole 
strained through a linen cloth, and the clear, dark- 
colored liquid boiled to a syrupy consistency. Walnut 
wood: A decoction of Cassel brown, 3 kg.; potash, .3 
kg.; and water, 7 kg.; the whole strained through 
linen, and during evaporation to syrup 2.5 kg. of 
extract of logwood added. Mahogany: A decoction 
of extract of Brazil wood, 3 kg.; potash, .25 kg., and 
water, 3 kg ; to which, before evaporating to syrup, 
150 gr. of eosine are added. Ebony: 5 kg. of extract 
of logwood, boiled with 1 1 kg. of water, and, when 
near the syrupy state, 300 gr. of iron nitrate added; 
evaporated to a syrup under constant stirring. All 
the above stains are brought into a dry condition by 
running the respective syrups into trays of sheet iron, 
with low rims, in which the syrup hardens, and is 
afterward broken up and ground. 

It is often desirable to retain the grain of the natural 
wood exposed to view, at the same time to preserve 
its surface from decay and give it a more beautiful 
appearance; this is done either by polishing or 
varnishing. To varnish such woods a little skill is 
required to obtain a really good gloss, smooth as 
glass, upon its surface. All roughness should be 
carefully removed, being particular not to leave any 
marks, especially across the grain, of the sandpaper 
or other material used in smoothing, and the work 
should be afterwards well sized, either with gelatine 
or good glue size. This size is to prevent the 
absorption of the varnish in soft places, and to' obtain 
a more even gloss. Sizing sometimes has a tendency 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 203 

to raise the grain of the wood, more particularly of 
soft wood, especially if applied warm. Use oak 
varnish. 

Aniline Dyes. — Aniline dyes are of two kinds, one 
dissolving in water, the other in spirits. As they have 
a tendency to fade in the light, the water dyes are 
preferable, as they can be mixed with a little vinegar, 
this greatly hindering the fading out process. To dis- 
solve in spirits, use a spirit varnish, such as painters 
use. No definite amount necessary to stain varnish 
can be given, and it will be necessary to experiment 
with it. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. Give a description of the different kinds of wood 
that used to be in vogue about thirty or forty years ago, 
but are now reckoned inferior in the manufacture of 
furniture. 

2. Whether have dark or hght colored woods the 
preference from an aesthetic point of view? 

3. Mention some of the valuable qualities to be found 
in white oak. 

4. Mention other two kinds of wood that are frequent- 
ly used for high-class work, and well adapted for finish- 
ing purposes. 

5. Whether is it preferable a finish in hardwood or 
a finish in pine? 

204 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 205 

6. Is there any difference in cost between a finish in 
the best clear pine and the best selected hardwood? 

7. What is essential in the choice of all kinds of hard- 
wood for finishing purposes? 

8. What are the characteristic features in hardwood 
that recommends it above others ? 

9. What class of work is pine peculiarly adapted for? 

10. What other kinds of soft wood are fairly good 
for finishing purposes ? 

11. Mention the names of some of the woods that 
have all coarse grain, and that are not so suitable for 
tasteful work. 

12. What has been the result of introducing the mod- 
ern methods of polishing finished woodwork? 

13. Give a description of the process termed "French 
polishing" and for what purpose it is best adapted. 

14. Give an account of the organic tissue m woods, 
also the variable organic elements associated with it, and 
examples illustrating same. 

15. Give a description of the exterior characteristics 
of woods, and their subdivision into two classes, also the 
names of some of the woods in each class. 

16. Give a description of the different ways in the 
consideration of the density of wood. 

17. Whether is the density of the harder or softer 
woods more preferable and popular with wood finishers, 
and state the reasons for preference ? 

18. Give a description of the qualities of ''walnut" 
wood. 

19. Give a description of the qualities of the "ma- 
hogany" wood, and the several kinds. 

20. Give a description of the qualities of the ''cherry" 
wood. 



2o6 THE UP-TO-DATE 

21. Give a description of the qualities of the ''black 
birch." 

22. Give a description of the characteristic features to 
be found in the different varieties of oak. 

22' Give a description of some of the qualities to be 
found in the "butternut." 

24. Give a description of the qualities to be found in 
"rosewood." 

25. Give some of the characteristics that are to be 
found in the "apple" wood. 

26. Give a description of some of the qualities to be 
found in the "maple" wood. 

2y. Give a few of the characteristic qualities to be 
found in the "chestnut" and "ash." 

28. When does it seem superfluous to have complex 
decoration in the finishing of hardwoods? 

29. What wood is made most use of for interior finish, 
and what are some of the articles for which it is well 
adapted ? 

30. Describe the difference between the working of 
oak, particularly in the framing up of panel work, from 
ordinary pine or other soft wood panel work. 

31. Give a description which shows the method of 
setting out the twist or spiral for a column, pillar or 
spindle. 

^2. Give a description of the method of making prop- 
erly a dovetail joint. 

2^. Give a description of secret lap dovetailing, and 
for what purposes it is well adapted. 

34. What is the difference between secret and plain 
lap dovetailing? 

35. Give a description of what is mean by the process 
"miter dovetailing." 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 207 

2,6. Give a description of what is meant by the process 
"bevel or splay dovetailing," 

37. Give a description of the method adopted in the 
manufacture of veneered doors, when a number of them 
are to be made at one time. 

38. What should be done in the manufacture of first 
class doors before they are veneered ? 

39. What equipment is required aside from the usual 
door-making machinery? 

40. Give a description of the preparatory work of the 
materials previous to their construction. 

41. Give a description of the process of construction 
in the manufacture of doors and particulars regarding 
the veneers and process of veneering. 

42. Give a description of the advantages derivable in 
the construction of "dowel" doors. 

43. Give a description of the best method whereby to 
test the quality of glue. 

44. Give a description of the best way in which to 
prepare glue for use. 

45. Give a description of the process in applying the 
glue to the purposes for which it is intended. 

46. Give a description of the kinds of wood suitable 
for veneering purposes, and the preparatory processes 
necessary. 

47. Give a description of the process of "jointing" in 
veneering. 

48. Give a description of the process of "veneering 
by caul." 

49. Give a description of the process of "veneering 
round and tapering columns." 

50. Give a description of veneering small work by 



2o8 THE UP-TO-DATE 

using the cauls, such as in making picture frames, clock 
stands or similar work. 

51. Give a description of what should be done pre- 
paratory to the process of polishing. 

52. Give a description of ''the scraper," for what 
purposes it is employed, and the method of its manipula- 
tion. 

53. Give a description of the proper method of sharp- 
ening scrapers. 

54. Give a description of the method of using sand- 
paper. 

55. Give a description of "rasps and files" and their 
uses and modes of manipulation. 

56. Give a description of the different kinds of saws 
for working hardwood, and how to manipulate them. 

57. Give a description of the method of sharpening 
tenon saws. 

58. Give a description of planes in general, and the 
methods of manipulating them. 

59. Give a description of the grain direction for 
planes. 

60. Give a description of the proper method of setting 
an iron in a plane. 

61. Give a description of oilstones for sharpening 
plane irons, and method of manipulating the iron dur- 
ing the process of sharpening, 

62. Give a description of the process termed "secret 
or blind nailing." 

63. Give a description of what the term "wood fillers" 
means, and the methods of their application. 

64. Give a description of the preparatory work neces 
sary before commencing the process of "filling in." 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 209 

65. Give a description of the principal fillers used in 
the trade. 

66. Give the description of a walnut filler for medium 
and cheap work. 

67. Give the description of a walnut filler for imita- 
tion wax finish. 

68. Give the description of a walnut filler for first 
class work. 

69. Give the description of a filler for light woods. 

70. Give the description of a filler for cherry wood. 

71. Give the description of a filler for oak wood. 

72. Give the description of a filler for rosewood. 

y^i' Give a description of the operations to be em- 
ployed when the work with the filler is done. 

74. Give a description of the method in applying 
**luxeberry'' to the wood. 

75. Give a description of the process of wood stain- 
ing in general, stating some of the varieties, and the best 
woods that are well adapted for their application. 

y^. Give the reason why French polishing is employed 
in finishing first class work. 

'j'j. Give a description as to the time and temperature 
in which the varnishing should be done, in order to be of 
durable character and produce beautiful work. 

78. Give an example of how to treat cabinet work 
during the process of varnishing. 

79. Give a description of how to manipulate the brush 
while varnishing, and the best kind of brush for the 
purpose. 

80. What should always be considered before begin- 
ning the process of varnishing. 

81. Give a description of the preparatory work neces- 
sary for the process of French polishing. 



2IO THE UP-TO-DATE 

82. Give a description of the *'pad or rubber" with 
which the poHsh is apphed, and the best kind of material 
of which it should be made. 

(S3. Give a description of the amount of polish to be 
applied to the "rubber," and the manner of manipulat- 
ing the latter. 

84. Give a description of what should be done with 
th€ old ''rubber" when the job is finished upon which it 
was used. 

85. Give a description of the time to be allowed for 
the polish to sink, and the process to be employed before 
commencing to polish again. 

S6. Give a description of the ingredients that com- 
pose a good all-round polish that can be relied on. 

Sy. Give a description of how to use the material for 
bodying. 

88. Give a description of what should be done when 
the rubber dries. 

89. Give a description as to how long the first body- 
ing-in process should be continued. 

90. Give a description as to the number of times the 
work will require to be bodied. 

91. Give a description of how to proceed before be- 
ginning to work a fresh body on a previous one. 

92. Give a description of what should be observea by 
polishers when bodying up. 

93. Give a description of the important matter regard- 
ing how to dry the rubbers. 

94. Give a description of the final operation in French 
polishing, by which the gloss is put on the body pre- 
viously applied. 

95. Give a description of the process known as wax 
polishing. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER jsis 

96. Give a description of the class of wood upon 
which wax polishing is often applied, and the character- 
istic features it imparts in comparison with French polish. 

97. Give a description of the appearance that wood 
stained black has after it is wax polished. 

98. Whether upon coarsely grained woods or light 
woods of close texture, is wax polish better to be ap- 
plied ? 

99. Give a description of the Ingredients in the com- 
position of wax polish, and the process of their admix- 
ture. 

100. .Give a description of the process of oil polish- 
ing, for what purposes it is best adapted, and the char- 
acteristic features in its favor. 

loi. Give a description of the process known as "dry 
shining," the method of its adaptation, and the chief ad- 
vantages in connection with it. 

102. Give a description of repolishing and reviving 
old work, and the various processes that should be adopted 
in the class of work to be operated upon, so that the 
best results may be produced. 

103. Give a description of how to renovate the polish 
on German pianos, and the different ingredients and 
method of admixture that are applied to render the opera- 
tion effective. 

104. Give a description as to matching up satin wai* 
nut. 

105. Give a description of how the wavy appearance 
of some woods may be given, and how veins, either black 
or red, may be produced in matching. 

106. Give a description of the operation entailed In 
the final stage, when finishing oft* repolished work. 



212 THE UP-TO-DATE 

107. Give a description of the utility of dry colors, 
known as pigments, in the polisher's operations. 

108. Give a description of the preparation of a mix- 
ture which is used in making an imitation marble 
which wears well, and its effective appearance when pro- 
duced. 

109. Give a description of the manner of finishing 
oak in general. 

no. Give a description of how to produce the effect 
of a good imitation of antique oak. 

111. Give another description of how a very clever 
imitation of the general antique can be obtained. 

112. Give a description of how oak may be fumi- 
gated, stating the liquid used, and the method of pro- 
cedure in the operation. 

113. Give a description of how to darken oak. 

114. Give a description of the different styles of oak 
finishes, namely, ''bog oak," "weathered oak," "Antwerp 
oak," ''black Flemish oak," "brown Flemish oak," 
"Malachite," and "Tyrolean oak." 

115. Give a description of how to obtain a good 
"golden oak" finish. 

116. Give a description of cherry wood and the best 
method of making it look like mahogany. 

117. Give a description of black birch, and what 
woods it can be easily stained to resemble. 

118. Give a description of mahogany, and the excel 
lent qualities it possesses, also what may be done tc 
darken the reddish hue which newly wrought mahogan- 
presents. 

119. Give a description of the process in repolishing 
and reviving old mahogany work. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 213 

120. Give a description of walnut and how it may be 
treated in the finishing, also mention some of the woods 
that may be stained to resemble it. 

121. Give a description of the cypress wood, and its 
adaptability for the process of finishing, also the names 
of several of the varieties. 

122. Give a description of rosewood and how it may 
be treated in the process of finishing. 

123. Give a description of the maple wood, and its 
adaptability for staining purposes, stating some of the 
imitations that may be obtained. 

124. Give a description of the maple wood, and its 
adaptability for finishing, also the method of obtaining 
an ''egg-shell" gloss, "a. dull finish," and "a. polished 
finish." 

125. Give a description of white and black ash, and 
its adaptability for finishing, also the method of obtaining 
an ''egg-shell" gloss, "a dull finish," and a "polished 
finish." 

126. Give a description of dyeing wood, and for what 
purpose this process is mostly applied. 

127. Give a description of the process termed "gild- 
ing" and the characteristics of the design upon which it 
is employed. 

128. Give a description of the process known as "bur- 
nish gilding." 

129. Give a description of the process^ termed "bronz- 
ing" and how it may be accomplished. 

130. Give a general description of the "metallization 
of wood," and the process by which it may be obtained. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



INDEX TO PART ONE 



A. 

American woods, 12 
Apple wood, 15 
A patent glue-pot, 47 
A diagram of planes, 86 

B. 

Bevel dovetailing, 31 
Bevel scrapers, 71 
Blind nailing, 96 



Characteristics of woods, 13 
Carving woods, 15 
Construction, 40 
Clamping veneers, 42 
Cauls, 51 
Cross-cut saws, 77 

D. 
Details of wainscot, 18 
Drawing spiral baluster, 21 
Dovetailing, 22 
Dovetailing, plain, 23 
Dovetail pins, 25 
Dovetail mortises, 25 
Dovetailing tap, 27 
Dovetailing, miter, 29 
Dovetailing, bevel, 31 
Daniels planer work, 34 
Doors, 35 
Doors, wedges, 42 
Diagrams for veneer, 57 
Dry material for work, 60 
Diagrams of scraper, 69 
Diagram of cutting edge, 70 
Defective sharpening of scrap- 
er, 72 
Dovetailing saw, 78 
Determining pitch of saw teeth, 

83 
Direction of grain in planes, 85 
Diagrams of cutting pitches, 91 
Diagrams for blind nailing, 97 



Elevation and section of oak 

wainscot, 19 
Equipment for making hard' 

wood doors, 36 

F. 

Flatting work, 49 
File-sharpening a scraper, 69 
Files and rasps, 74 
Filing a saw, 78 
Fixing planes, 87 

G. 

Glued up stuff for doors, 36 

Glue-pot, patent, 37 

Gluing horse, 37 

Gluing frame, 38 

Gluing up stuff for general 

work, 39 
Gluing up joints, 46 

H. 

Hardwoods generally, 16 
Hardwood wainscot, 17 
How to use a scraper, 63 
How to hold a s(;raper, 64 
How to sharpen a .^craper, 65 
Holding a scraper, 67 
Handled scraper, 72 
How to use sandpaper, 74 
Hand saws, 77 
How to file a saw, 80 
Hag's tooth, 93 
How to set a plane iron, 93 
How to sharpen plane irons on 
oilstone, 95 

I. 

Introduction, 7 
Inserting plane irons, 89 

J. 

Jointing, 50 
Jack planes, 85 



INDEX TO PART ONE* 



Laying out dovetailing, 23 
Lap dovetailing, 27 
Laying out saw teeth, 83 
Laying hold of smoothing plane, 
88 

M. 

Miter dovetailing, 30 
Mitered splay dovetailing, 32 
Moulded panels, 42 
Mortising doors, 43 
Mortising tools, 44 
Metal cauls, 52 

Method of veneering columns, 56 
Making saw teeth uniform 

length, 82 
Method of sighting iron in 

planes, 88 

P. 
Preface, 5 
Planer work, 34 
Preparation for veneering, 48 
Polish for scraper, 65 
Patent scraper, 72 
Planes generally, 84 
Planes — how to use, 86 
Pitch of plane irons, 91 

R. 

Remarks on veneering, 48 

Round corner scraper, 62 

Rules for scraper sharpening, 70 

Round and hollow scrapers, 73 

Rasps and files, 74 

Rip saws, 76 

Regulating the saw teeth, 82 



Spiral baluster or newel, 21 
Section and elevation of oak 

wainscot, 19 
Secret lap dovetailing, 28 
Surplus glue, rubbing out, 45 



Sizing up work for gluing, 48 
Scrapers, 61 

Scrapers with handles, 61 
Saw plate scrapers, 62 
Sharpening a scraper, 64 
Sharpening on oilstone, 68 
Sharpening by using a file, 68 
Sandpaper blocks, 74 
Saws for hardwood, 75 
Saw teeth, 78 
Setting a saw, 79 
Sharpening tenon saws, 81 
Squaring over saw teeth, 83 
Smoothing planes, 87 
Sighting plane iron, 88 
Setting in plane iron, 89 
Stones for sharpening plane 

iron, 94 
Secret nailing, 96 

T. 

The better woods to make use 

of, 16 
The choice of glue, 45 
Tenon saws, 78 
Trying planes, 86 

V. 

Veneers, 40 
Veneering, 41 
Veneering by cauls, 51 
Veneering round and tapering 

columns, 55 
Veneering small work, 58 
Veneering beveled picture 

frames, 59 
Varieties of scrapers, 73 

W. 
Wood discussed, 10 
Woods of various kinds, 12 
Wedged doors, 42 
Wood scrapers, 61 
Wood planes, 86 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



INDEX TO PART TWO 



Ash stain, 59 

Another pohsh recipe, 75 

A good pohsh, 76 

A pohsh that will stand water, 

76 
A French polish reviver, 77 
Antique oak, 94 
Another method of darkening 

oak, 119 
Austrian oak, 123 
An egg-shell finish, 141 
A polished finish, 141 
Ash wood, 148 

A method of finishing ash, 149 
A method of staining wood, 157 
A brown stain, 158 
A dark dye, 159 
A fine yellow dye, 161 
A fine blue dye, 161 
A bright yellow dye, 161 
Applying the size, 176 
Aniline dyes, 203 

B. 

Black, 26 

Brazil wood, 27 

Blackboard wash, 29 

Blue, 32 

Brown, 33 

Brushes for varnishing, 63 

Brushes for flowing, 65 

Bodying in and spiriting off, 78 

Black oak, 123 

Black birch, 131 

Birch wood, 131 

Beech wood, 150 

Beech finishing, 151 

Bright yellow dye, 160 

Bright green dye, 161 

Bright red dye, 161 

Burnish gilding, 176 

Burnishing, 178 



Bronzing, 180 
Banana solutions, 181 
Bruises in wood, 201 



China clay wood filler, 10 
Cherry wood filler, 14 
Cleaning off filling, 18 
Coloring and matching, 108 
Cherry, 128 
Cypress, 135 
Cedar, white, 150 
Composition for frame orn» 

ments, 179 
Coloring wood right through 

191 
Cleaning polished wood, 192 

D. 

Dark mahogany, 44 
Darkening oak, 47 
Darkening walnut, 54 
Dead finish, 77 
Dry shining, 99 
Dyeing woods, 159 
Dyeing blue, 161 
Dyeing yellow, 161 
Dyeing green, 162 
Dyeing red, 162 
Dull polish on stained whit©« 
wood, 190 

E. 

Ebonizing, 34 
Egg-shell finish, 141 
Egg-shell gloss, 146 
Ebonizing with shellac, 153 
Ebonizing methods, 154 
Estimating cost of floors, 188 
Easy method of finishing wood* 

work, 195 
Ebonizing, 200 



INDEX TO PART TWu 



Filler for light woods, 13 

Filler for cherry, 14 

Filler for oak, 14 

Filler for rosewood, 14 

Filling with plaster of Paris, 15 

Filler for redwood, 17 

Floors, 40 

French polishing, 66 

First and best recipe, 74 

Finishing oak, 113 

Fumigated oak, 116 

Flemish oak, 122 

Fumigated oak, 125 

For removing polish and re- 
staining oak, 127 

Finishing black birch, 131 

Finishing mahogany, 132 

Finishing redwood, 141 

For an egg-shell gloss, 141 

For a dull finish, 141 

For a polished finish, 141 

For a walnut finish, 142 

For mahogany and cherry fin- 
ish, 143 

For rosewood finish, 143 

For an egg-shell gloss, 146 

For a dull finish, 147 

For a polislied finish, 147 

Finishing maple, 148 

For a brown stain, 157 

For a black dye, 159 

Fine blue dye, 161 

Fine yellow dye, 161 

Finishing good work, 178 

Flooring generally, 187 

Floor polish, 190 

Finishing hardwood, 192 

Filler for white ash, 193 

G. 

Gas black, 29 

Green stains, 43 

Gray, 43 

Glaze polish, 91 

German finishing, 106 

Golden oak, 121 

Green dyes, 162 

Gray dyes, 164 

Gilding, bronzing and compoei- 

'r^. 164 



Gilding mirror frame, 166 

Gilding furniture, 171 

Gold size, 173 

Gold adhering, to prevent, 171 

Gold wood finish, 194 

H. 
Hemlock wood, 151 
Hemlock finishing, 152 
Hardwood floors, 183 
How to tone down new work, 
198 

I. 

Imitation oak stain, 145 
Imitation mahogany stain, 145 
Imitation rosewood stain, 141 
Imitation walnut stain, 145 



Luxeberry finish, 23 
Liquid slating, 29 
Light mahogany, 44 
Liquid for brightening and set* 

ting colors, 163 
Laying the gold, 177 

M. 

Mahogany stains, 44 
Mahogany, dark, 44 
Mahogany, light, 44 
Manufacturers' polish, 80 
Making antique oak, 117 
Mahogany wood, 147 
Maple wood, 147 
Matting or dead gold, 178 
Making paste wood fillers, 192 
Metallization of wood, 197 

N. 
Next best recipe, 75 
New floors, 187 

O. 

Oil filling, 11 

Oak filler, 14 

Oak wood, 47 

Other French polish recipes, 75 

Oil finishing and dry shining 9fi 

Oak, fumigated, 116 

Oak staining generally, 124 



INDEX TO PART TWO 



Other woods, 150 

Orange dyes, 163 

Oil size, 173 

Oil gilding, 175 

On hardwood floors, 18S 



Picking sticks, 18 

Picking brushes, 19 

Purple stain, 49 

Polishing wad, 69 

Prepared spirits, 76 

Polish for turners' work, 77 

Pine wood, 142 

Pine finish, 142 

Purple dyes, 163 

Parchment size, 173 

Preparing the woodwork, 176 

Polishing, 176 

Putting transfers on coach 
panels, 199 

Paint for blackboards, 199 

Polishing boxwood draught- 
men, 200 

R. 

Rosewood filler, 14 
Red stain, 50 
Rubber for polishing, 68 
Rules for polishing, 73 
Repolishing and reviving, 104 
Red oak, 123 
Regarding cypress, 135 
Rosewood generally, 138 
Rosewood finish, 139 
Redwood, 141 
Red dyes, 162 
Refinishing oak doors, 191 

S. 

Surfacing finish, 21 
Sizing work, 24 
Staining black, 26 
Satin wood, 52 
Staining oak brown, 59 
Shellac polish, 81 
Styles of oak finish, 120 
Sycamore wood, 151 
Sycamore finishing, 151 
Stains of all kinds, 155 



Staining carved panelSj 158 

Staining spirit varnish, 158 

Silver gray dye, 104 

Sizes, 173 

Shelled gold, 179 

Silver size, 179 

Staining woodwork with acidi, 

182 
Stained floors, 189 
Spirit varnish for violins, 19fi 
Softening putty, 201 

T. 

The finishing of various woods, 

112 
The rules for finishing oak, 113 
To darken oak, 119 
To finish cherry, 128 
The mahogany stains, 133 
To manipulate gold leaf, 179 



Varnishing floors, 41 
Violet stain, 52 
Varnishing and polishing, 59 
Verde or green finish, 123 

W. 

Wood fillers and how to us€ 

them, 7 
Wheeler's wood filler, 8 
Walnut filler, No. 1, 13 
Walnut filler. No. 2, 13 
Wood staining generally, 25 
Walnut wood, 52 
Walnut stains, 53 
Wad for polishing, 69 
Wax polishing, 93 
Wax and turpentine, 95 
Wax mixture, 96 
Weathered oak, 123 
Walnut finishing generally, 135 
White pine finishing, 142 
White cedar, 150 
Wood stains, 201 

Y. 

Yellow stain, 55 
Yellow dye, dark, 161 
Yellow dye, bright, lijl 



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Builders' Reliable Estimator 



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